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THE  PROFESSION 
OF  TEACHING 


BY 

O.  I.  WOODLEY 

President  Marshall  College,  Huntington,  West  Virginia 
AND 

M.  VIRGINIA  WOODLEY 

Authors  of  Foundation  Lessons  in  English,  English  Studies  in 
Interpretation  and  Composition,  etc. 


BOSTON    NEW  YORK    CHICAGO 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

(Ste  IHi'oniiiie  j^veii  Cambridge 


COPYRIGHT,    1917,   BY  O.   I.   WOODLEY   AND  M.  VIRGINIA  WOODLEY 
ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 


CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
U    .   S    .    A 


PREFACE 

The  plan  and  purpose  of  this  discussion  of  the  profession 
of  teaching,  though  simple  and  clear,  treats  the  subject  from 
a  somewhat  unusual  point  of  view  and  hence  requires  a  few 
words  of  explanation. 

Some  time  ago,  in  a  discussion  between  a  well-known  at- 
torney and  an  educator,  the  former  emphatically  asserted 
that  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a  profession  of  teaching,  and 
that  there  could  not  be  with  the  present  American  system  of 
education.  This  statement,  though  backed  by  many  strong 
arguments,  did  not  shake  the  firm  belief  of  the  representa- 
tive of  that  same  educational  system,  that  teaching  is  as 
truly  a  profession  as  any  of  those  occupations  that  are  in- 
disputably classed  as  such.  A  desire  to  establish  his  con- 
viction and  to  secure  unquestionable  proof  of  its  correctness 
led  to  a  general  analysis  of  vocations  with  the  particular 
object  of  discovering  the  nature  and  characteristics  of  a 
profession  and  of  determining  the  requirements  for  becom- 
ing a  worthy  member  of  it.  The  first  chapter  of  this  book 
is  the  direct  outgrowth  of  that  study. 

A  further  study  of  the  particular  requirements  which  the 
profession  of  teaching  makes  upon  those  who  wish  to  be 
teachers  in  a  truly  professional  sense  has  resulted  in  the  con- 
clusions set  forth  in  the  succeeding  chapters.  It  is  evident 
that  the  demands  which  the  larger  idea  of  education  makes 
upon  the  teacher  cannot  be  met  without  a  clear  understand- 
ing on  his  part  of  these  demands  and  the  means  to  be  em- 
ployed in  meeting  them.  The  essential  features  of  these  re- 
quirements are  given  particular  emphasis;  and  many  other 


iv  PREFACE 

matters  that  the  professional  worker  in  the  great  field  of 
education  should  understand  are  discussed. 

In  the  wTiting  of  this  book,  it  has  been  a  definite  aim  of 
the  authors  to  make  the  discussions  simple  and  direct.  For 
this  reason,  technical  words  and  phrases  have  been  carefully 
avoided  where  possible  without  sacrificing  the  sense.  It  is 
the  belief  of  the  authors  that  a  book  which  can  be  under- 
stood by  the  average  reader  is  more  universally  helpful  than 
one  that  is  highly  technical  and  scholarly,  but  cannot  be 
understood  by  the  general  reader. 

The  authors  venture  to  hope  that  many  of  those  who  will 
read  this  book  may  be  enabled  to  see  more  clearly  than  be- 
fore that  teaching  is  a  great  profession,  and  to  understand 
that  the  privilege  of  shaping  character  and  of  leading  the 
young  to  some  comprehension  of  Divine  truth  is  one  of  the 
most  responsible  and  noblest  of  all  vocations. 

For  assistance  through  criticism  and  suggestion,  acknowl- 
edgment is  made  to  Miss  Anna  S.  Cummings,  Professor 
of  Education  and  Superintendent  of  the  Training  School, 
Marshall  College,  who  has  tested  the  work  in  her  classes 
of  student  teachers. 

O.  I.  WOODLEY. 

M.  Virginia  Woodlet. 

Huntington  W.Va. 
May  1917 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I.  Profession  Defined 1 

The  evolution  of  vocations  —  Classification  of  vocations  — 
Professions  distinguished  from  other  vocations  —  Special  pro- 
fessional preparation  necessary  —  All  professions  based  upon  fun- 
damental principles  —  Ethical  element  in  professions  —  Ethical 
relations  of  a  physician  —  Observance  of  ethics  by  the  clergy  — • 
Ethics  in  the  legal  profession  —  Summary  of  characteristics  of  a 
profession  —  Requirements  of  a  profession  applied  to  teaching  — 

—  Teaching  based  upon  established  principles  —  Agreement  on 
fundamental  laws  not  essential  —  Fundamental  principles  of  edu- 
cation —  Ethical  element  in  teaching. 

CHAPTER  n.  School  Ethics 19 

Persons  interested  in  child  education  —  Interdependence  of 
ethical  relation  —  Ethical  relation  of  the  community  to  the 
teacher  —  Obligation  of  the  community  to  its  children  —  Special 
community  obligations  —  Obligation  of  board  of  education  to 
teachers  —  Ethical  obligations  of  the  superintendent  of  schools 
to  the  teachers,  to  the  pupils  —  Various  relations  of  the  teacher  — 
Relations  of  teachers  to  parents,  to  the  board  of  education,  to  the 
superintendent,  to  pupils,  to  one  another  —  Dr.  Hinsdale  and  the 
quack  teacher  —  Thoughtless  cruelty  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

CHAPTER  in.  The  Ultimate  Aim  of  Education  . 

Educational  forces  —  Term  "education"  explained  —  Aim  of 
education  as  stated  by  various  educators — Character  the  ultimate 
aim  —  Broad  conception  of  character  —  Ideals  embraced  in  char- 
acter —  Religious  ideals  —  Ideals  of  home  —  Municipal  ideals 

—  Commercial  ideals  —  Citizenship  ideals  —  Ideals  of  patriotism 

—  Ideals  of  manhood  —  A  person's  character  the  sum  of  his 
ideals  —  Plus  element  in  education  —  Character  aim  attained 
through  right  teaching. 

CHAPTER  IV.  Happiness  as  related  to  Education  . 

The  desire  for  happiness  universal  —  The  quest  of  happiness 
legitimate  —  Happiness  sought  through  self-gratification  —  Hap- 
piness through  service  to  others  —  Happiness  an  aid  to  best  effort 


y, 


CONTENTS 

—  Happiness  through  obedience  to  law  —  Violation  of  law  brings 
penalty  —  Laws  of  nature  discovered  through  experience  —  Social 
laws  evolved  in  development  of  civilization  —  Social  laws  broken 
through  WTong  conception  of  life  purpose  —  Breaking  of  law 
fatal  to  happiness  —  Happiness  within  reach  of  all  —  Happiness 
not  dependent  upon  external  conditions — Habit  of  obeying  law 
should  be  formed  in  childhood  —  Happiness  impossible  without 
obedience  to  law  —  Immunity  from  pain  not  necessary  to  happi- 
ness —  Relation  of  education  to  happiness  —  Responsibility  of 
teachers. 


CHAPTER  V.  The  Social  Function  of  the  School     .    84 

Social  institutions  to  meet  social  needs  —  Vocational  training 
in  early  civilization — Vocational  training  changed  by  modern  con- 
ditions —  Home  no  longer  provides  social  and  vocational  train- 
ing — Schools  evolved  to  meet  social  needs — School  should  supple- 
ment work  of  home  —  Duties  imposed  upon  the  school  —  Medi- 
cal inspection  of  pupils  —  Various  duties  relegated  to  the  school 

—  School  overburdened  with  duties  of  other  institutions  —  All 
social  institutions  have  a  part  in  education  of  the  child  —  School 
voluntarily  assumes  work  of  other  institutions  —  Distinct  func- 
tion of  the  school  —  Important  race  facts  in  curriculum  —  Test 
of  subject-matter  of  the  curriculimi. 

CHAPTER  VI.    The  Relation  of  the  School  to  the 

State  102 

The  American  free  school  system  —  Unity  through  conmion 
knowledge  of  race  facts  —  School  a  nationalizing  force  —  Train- 
ing foreign  children  for  citizenship  —  Conditions  necessary  for 
nationalizing  children  in  the  schools  —  The  school  fosters  pa- 
triotism —  School  standardizes  knowledge  —  Relation  of  school 
to  vocational  education  —  Vocational  guidance  an  aid  to  eflBciency 

—  School  the  most  effective  and  economical  way  to  educate  the 
masses  —  Law  of  seK-preservation  forces  State  to  educate  its 
citizens  —  Schools  should  instruct   in   exercise  of  sovereignty 

—  School  the  most  potent  influence  for  preservation  of  State. 

CHAPTER  Vn.  The  Leabning  Process       .      .      .      .121 

Consciousness  of  self  and  conscious  learning  —  Consciousness 
of  self  through  sensation  —  Sensations  differ  in  character  —  Rela- 
tion of  memory  to  the  learning  process  —  Memory  images  — 

—  Relation  of  judgment  to  learning  process  —  Relation  of  ap- 
perception to  learning  process  —  Apperceptive  mass  —  Learning 


CONTENTS  vu 

process  compared  to  building  a  structure  —  Exercise  of  the  judg- 
ment necessary  —  Concepts  in  the  learning  process  —  Interest 
in  the  learning  process  —  The  will  in  the  learning  process  — 
Thinking  in  the  learning  process  —  Four  steps  in  acquisition  of 
knowledge  —  Influence  of  the  physical  nature  upon  learning. 

CHAPTER  VIII.  Correct    Concepts    necessary    fob 

Right  Thinking 140 

Exercise  of  the  reasoning  power  necessary  for  subjective 
growth  —  Cultivation  of  the  thinking  habit  important  —  Teach- 
er's failure  often  due  to  ignorance  of  aim  —  Examples  of  teacher's 
poverty  of  concepts  —  Related  concepts  necessary  for  logical 
thinking  —  Examination  tests  show  a  teacher's  aim  —  Teachers 
often  deluded  regarding  results  of  teaching — Apparent  subjective 
results  often  misleading  —  Pupils'  failure  to  think  due  to  teaching 
—  Criticisms  of  schools  make  improved  conditions  necessary  — 
Curriculum  should  contain  subjects  rich  in  concepts  —  Concepts 
from  manual  training  illustrated  —  Better  preparation  of  teachen 
necessary  —  More  attention  to  subjective  phase  of  teaching 
needed  —  Right  habit  of  thinking  should  be  formed. 

CHAPTER  IX.  The  Teaching  Process        .      .      .      .  Iflt 

The  term  "  teaching"  explained  —  The  first  law  of  teaching  — 
Law  applies  to  teaching  in  all  departments  —  The  point  at  which 
instruction  begins  —  Misdirected  effort  in  teaching  illustrated  — 
The  pupil's  previous  knowledge  —  Means  of  teaching  children 
useful  concepts  —  Selection  of  subject-matter  for  presentation' — 
Right  estimate  of  values  in  selecting  subject-matter  —  Sequence 
in  material  presented  —  Use  of  subject-matter  in  the  learning 
process  —  Wrong  presentation  results  in  waste  —  Preparation  of 
child's  mind  for  new  lesson  —  Development  of  the  lesson — Appli- 
cation of  lesson  —  The  formal  steps  in  teaching  illustrated  — 
-/  Teachers  must  know  law  of  teaching  —  The  teacher  must  apply 
law  in  his  teaching  —  Special  preparation  needed  for  effective 
teaching. 

CHAPTER  X.  The  Recitation 181 

The  recitation  in  the  school  program  —  The  value  of  the  re- 
citation —  The  recitation  an  established  feature  of  school  work  -' 
Recitation  idea  modified  and  extended  —  The  German  plan  oi 
recitation  —  Importance  of  the  recitation  —  Importance  of 
proper  aim  in  the  recitation  —  The  objects  of  the  recitation  — 
Objects  as  stated  by  Dr.  Hinsdale  and  Dr.  Harris  —  Importance 


viii  CONTENTS 

of  teaching  pupils  how  to  study  —  The  recitation  adapted  to  the 
pupils  —  Order  in  the  recitation  —  Length  of  the  recitation  — 
Allotments  must  suit  individual  conditions  —  Table  for  recitation 
periods  — ■  Subjective  and  objective  results  —  Evidences  of  a  good 
recitation. 

CHAPTER  XI.   Subject-Matter 199 

Purpose  of  subject-matter  —  Education  explained  —  Early 
concepts  differ  with  environment  —  The  child's  educational 
capital  —  Aim  of  education  realized  through  proper  subject- 
matter  —  Educational  guidance  —  Education  both  general  and 
special  —  Educative  means,  direct  and  indirect  —  Soiu-ces  of  in- 
direct means  —  Selection  of  subject-matter  — ■  Subject-matter  for 
teaching  fundamental  facts  —  Subject-matter  for  teaching  uni- 
versal experiences  and  concepts  — •  Relation  of  subject-matter  to 
present  civilization  —  Subject-matter  for  teaching  symbols  of 
knowledge  — ■  Matter  for  its  cultural  value  —  Subject-matter 
from  all  fields  of  knowledge  —  Subject-matter  for  vocational 
instruction  — •  Subject-matter  should  be  adapted  to  the  develop- 
ment of  child. 

CHAPTER  XII.  Vocational  Education       .      .      .      .221 

A  vocation  or  a  job  —  Skilled  and  unskilled  workers  —  Paupers 
and  criminals  recruited  from  army  of  unskilled  —  Vocational  train- 
ing as  a  remedy  for  poverty  and  crime  —  Place  of  vocational 
education  in  preparation  for  life  —  Need  of  vocational  education 
recognizied  —  Practical  education  movement  result  of  popular 
demand  —  Early  attempts  at  practical  education  —  Manual 
training  —  Domestic  science  — •  Vocational  instruction  a  school 
problem  —  Complex  civilization  makes  educational  problem  diflB- 
cult  — •  Basis  for  vocational  instruction  wanting  —  Vocations 
classified  according  to  preparation  required  —  Academic  and 
vocational  stratification  —  Keeping  children  in  school  —  A 
study  of  railroad  transportation  — •  A  study  of  textile  work  —  In- 
dustries involving  work  in  wood  —  Work  in  domestic  arts  —  Pre- 
vocational  work  in  various  industries  —  Readjustment  of  course 
of  study. 

CHAPTER  Xin.  Vocational  Guidance        .      .      .      .250 

Conditions  necessary  for  a  well-balanced  life  —  Right  choice  of 
a  vocation  necessary  —  Classification  of  vocations  —  Classifica- 
tion based  upon  kind  of  material  handled  —  Importance  of  fit- 
ness for  a  vocation  —  School  should  provide  instruction  for  all  — 


CONTENTS  ix 

Desirable  characteristics  of  a  vocation  —  Methods  of  choosing  a 
vocation  —  Suggestions  for  instruction  in  vocational  guidance  — 
All  vocations  offer  both  advantages  and  disadvantages  —  The 
profession  of  medicine  as  a  vocation  —  Agricultiu-e  as  a  vocation 

—  Manufacturing  as  a  vocation  —  Trade  and  commerce  as  vo- 
cations —  Local  industries  and  business  —  Vocational  counsellor 

—  Pupil's  information  card  —  Parent's  report  —  Teacher's  report 

—  Employer's  report  —  Relation  of  School  to  vocational  problem. 

CHAPTER     XIV.     The    Child's  Ability  known    and 

UTILIZED 278 

Variation  of  ability  in  persons  —  Sub-normal  ability  —  Aver- 
age normal  ability  —  Ability  above  the  average  —  The  genius  — 
Teachers  should  endeavor  to  discover  genius  in  pupils  —  Ability 
chart  —  Ability  groupings  makes  teachers  more  just  —  Excep- 
tional ability  often  neglected  —  Injustice  often  results  from  wrong 
evaluation  —  Individual  ability  varies  in  different  subjects  — 
Special  classes  for  special  ability  —  Encouragement  through  do- 
ing well  —  Child's  interests  often  reveal  ability  —  Ability  some- 
times revealed  by  accident  —  The  negative  should  be  avoided  — 
Conditions  that  foster  the  expression  of  ability  —  Desirable  likes 
a  factor  in  ability  —  Teachers  must  have  varied  abilities  —  Per- 
sonal ability  chart  for  self-examination  —  Ability  proves  itself 
in  service. 

CHAPTER  XV.  The  Fundamental  Concept      .      .      .300 

All  matter  governed  by  fixed  principles  —  Change  of  form  in 
matter  controlled  by  fixed  laws  —  Growth  in  vegetable  kingdom 
governed  by  definite  laws  —  Animal  kingdom  controlled  by  fixed 
laws  —  Natural  law  reveals  infinite  mind  —  Divine  discontent 
in  the  human  mind  —  Spiritual  growth  through  search  for  truth 

—  Methods  of  growth  illustrated  —  Evidence  of  spiritual  growth 
in  enlargement  of  concept  — •  Principles  of  unity  in  all  life  —  All 
organized  matter  a  proof  of  creative  intelligence  —  Spiritual  law 
interpreted  through  natural  law  —  Principle  of  unity  fundamen- 
tal —  Desire  for  truth  universal  —  Desire  for  truth  makes  teach- 
ing possible  —  Teachers  must  be  seekers  for  truth  — ■  Spiritual 
growth  possible  for  all  —  Mental  and  spiritual  unrest  essential 
for  growth  —  True  education  results  in  character  growth. 

INDEX 319 


^'q\  \a:rB^'* 


THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 
CHAPTER  I 

PROFESSION  DEFINED 

The  evolution  of  vocations.  During  the  early  days  in  the 
history  of  the  human  race,  the  needs  of  mankind  were  so  few 
and  simple  that  every  man  could  make  or  procure  by  the 
work  of  his  own  hands  the  things  necessary  for  his  simple 
wants.  He  could  build  his  own  habitation  of  logs,  of  mud, 
or  of  whatever  building  materials  were  to  be  found  in  his 
immediate  vicinity.  He  could  procure  his  food  by  hunting, 
by  tilling  the  soil,  and  by  gathering  the  fruits,  nuts,  and 
other  foods  that  grew  wild  near  his  abode.  He  could  make 
his  clothing  from  the  skins  of  the  animals  that  he  killed. 
In  short,  he  could  provide  for  his  wants  without  the  assist- 
ance of  his  fellows,  and  hence  was  practically  independent. 

With  the  advance  of  civihzation  and  the  corresponding 
increase  of  the  needs  of  mankind,  this  condition  changed, 
and  man  became  more  and  more  dependent  upon  his  fellow- 
men  for  the  common  necessities  of  everyday  life.  He  required 
larger  and  better  places  of  abode  with  more  convenient  fur- 
nishings; he  needed  different  clothing  from  that  which  was 
considered  sufficient  by  primitive  man;  and  he  developed  an 
appetite  for  a  greater  variety  of  food.  In  the  course  of 
time,  his  needs  became  so  many  and  so  varied  that  he  could 
no  longer  perform  with  his  own  hands  all  the  labor  necessary 
to  procure  or  make  the  great  variety  of  things  that  he  re- 
quired for  himself  and  his  family.  He  found,  also,  that  he 
could  make  certain  articles  better  than  he  could  others,  and 


2  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

that  he  could  perform  some  tasks  with  more  facility  and 
skill  than  he  could  others.  He  looked  about  at  the  work  of 
his  neighbors  and  found  that  they  could  perform  certain 
tasks  and  make  certain  articles  more  skillfully  than  they 
could  others.  As  a  result  of  his  observation  and  experience, 
he  was  led  to  the  conclusion  that  it  would  be  to  the  mutual 
advantage  of  himself  and  his  neighbors  to  exchange  among 
themselves  their  various  products,  each  devoting  his  time  to 
procuring  or  making  such  things  as  he  could  make  most 
readily  and  skillfully. 

So  it  came  to  pass  in  the  development  of  civiHzation  that 
each  man  devoted  his  efforts  to  the  production  of  some  one 
thing  in  which  he  had  acquired  particular  skill.  This  he  ex- 
changed for  the  other  articles  that  he  needed,  which  in  turn 
had  been  produced  by  persons  who  had  chosen  to  devote 
their  efforts  to  the  production  of  these  different  commodities 
according  to  their  various  adaptabilities  and  opportunities. 
Thus  various  vocations  were  evolved  to  which  others  have 
been  added  as  the  needs  and  demands  of  the  ever-advancing 
civilization  required,  until,  at  the  present  time,  men  are 
engaged  in  a  great  variety  of  occupations  and  vocations  in 
order  that  all  the  needs  of  man  in  his  advanced  state  of  civili- 
zation may  be  satisfied. 

Classification  of  vocations.  In  grouping  or  classifying 
the  many  vocations  in  which  people  are  engaged,  there  are 
different  considerations  which  might  be  made  the  basis  of 
classification.  Owing  to  the  difference  of  opinion  regarding 
the  correct  or  most  satisfactory  basis  for  making  a  classifica- 
tion, there  are  some  vocations  that  are  differently  classified 
by  different  persons,  and  there  are  others  that  are  not 
definitely  classified,  or  are  given  a  doubtful  classification. 
The  vocation  of  teaching  is  one  of  those  that  has  not  been 
definitely  classified  to  the  satisfaction  of  all  persons.  Some 
persons  maintain  that  it  {)roperIy  belongs  to  that  class  of 


PROFESSION  DEFINED  3 

vocations  known  as  "professions."  Other  persons  just  as 
confidently  affirm  that  it  does  not  belong  to  that  class,  and 
that  in  the  nature  of  things  it  cannot  be  classed  as  a  pro- 
fession. The  reason  for  this  difference  of  oi)inion  among 
intellectual  people  may  be  traced  partly  to  the  fact  that 
they  have  different  conceptions  of  the  proper  basis  for  clas- 
sifying the  vocations  and  partly  to  the  lack  of  a  well-defined 
definition  of  "profession."  In  order,  therefore,  to  determine 
whether  or  not  teaching  is  a  profession,  it  will  be  necessary 
first  to  decide  what  constitutes  a  profession  and  then  apply 
the  definition  to  the  vocation  of  teaching. 

Vocations  classified.  An  examination  of  the  character  of 
the  difi'erent  vocations  will  reveal  the  fact  that  many  of  them 
have  certain  marked  characteristics  which  will  warrant 
arranging  them  into  groups  or  classes  and  making  these 
characteristics  the  basis  of  classification.  Upon  investigation 
it  will  be  discovered  that  certain  vocations  deal  entirely 
with  materials  or  material  things  in  the  production  of  articles 
for  man's  use.  For  example,  bricklaying,  cabinet-making, 
weaving,  and  all  kinds  of  manufacturing,  as  well  as  a  host  of 
other  occupations,  deal  exclusively  with  materials.  Those 
occupations  which  take  materials  and  convert  them  into 
articles  for  man's  use  may  be  broadly  termed  the  "  indus- 
tries," and  the  workers  in  them  may  be  called  "  industrial 
workers." 

Another  class  of  vocations  has  as  its  object  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  products  of  the  industries.  The  distance  which 
often  separates  those  persons  who  produce  from  those  for 
whose  use  these  products  are  intended,  makes  it  impossible 
to  secure  a  direct  exchange  of  products  between  producers 
and  consumers  as  was  the  case  with  primitive  man.  This 
condition  makes  necessary  another  class  of  workers  whose 
duty  it  is  to  make  this  distribution.  At  the  present  time  these 
distributers  perform  a  very  important  part  in  the  social 


4  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACfflNG 

economy  of  the  world  and  fill  a  great  need,  which  was,  how- 
ever, unknown  in  the  early  days  of  human  experience  when 
there  was  little  exchange  of  commodities  between  nations  or 
even  among  individuals  who  dwelt  any  distance  apart.  The 
vocation  which  has  as  its  particular  province  the  exchange 
and  distribution  of  commodities  is  known  as  "  commerce." 

Professions  distinguished  from  other  vocations.  There  is 
still  another  group  of  vocations  differing  in  essential  char- 
acteristics from  those  already  mentioned.  In  this  group,  the 
workers  deal  primarily  with  human  beings  rather  than  with 
inert  matter  as  in  those  already  mentioned;  and  the  results 
of  their  efforts  are  shown  in  some  direct  result  upon  the 
persons  with  whom  they  deal.  They  may  be  concerned  with 
the  physical,  the  mental,  or  the  moral  nature  of  man;  or  their 
work  may  have  to  do  with  the  adjustment  and  the  mainte- 
nance of  proper  business  relations  among  men.  The  sphere 
of  effort  of  each  is,  in  the  main,  clear  and  definite.  For 
example,  those  persons  who  are  primarily  concerned  with 
the  physical  well-being  of  man  have  for  their  particular  duty 
the  repair  of  the  human  body  and  its  preservation  from 
disease.  These  persons  belong  to  the  profession  of  medicine. 
Similarly,  the  duties  of  the  group  of  workers  who  deal  with 
the  moral  well-being  of  man  are  also  well  defined,  for  they 
are  directly  concerned  with  the  spiritual  needs  of  mankind. 
These  persons  belong  to  the  profession  of  the  ministry  of  the 
gospel.  The  vocations  of  those  persons  who  deal  with  human 
beings  are  said  to  belong  to  the  "  professional  class,"  pro- 
vided the  persons  who  practice  them  meet  certain  require- 
ments of  the  particular  profession  to  which  they  belong. 

Special  professional  preparation  necessary.  The  first  re- 
quirement which  a  person  must  fulfill  before  he  can  rightly 
enter  the  professional  class  is  to  make  a  careful  and  thorough 
preparation  for  the  particular  profession  which  he  wishes  to 
enter.    He  must  gain  a  full  knowledge  of  the  fundamental 


PROFESSION  DEFINED  5 

principles  which  govern  the  practice  of  his  chosen  profession, 
and  he  must,  through  years  of  painstaking  study,  experi- 
ment, and  experience,  acquire  the  professional  knowledge 
and  skill  that  will  enable  him  to  discharge  his  duties  satis- 
factorily. The  fact  that  a  professional  worker  deals  pri- 
marily with  people  and  his  effort  is  directly  with  human 
beings  makes  experience  and  full  professional  knowledge  the 
more  urgent.  A  worker  with  inert  matter  might  occasion- 
ally blunder  without  serious  consequences  resulting.  A  shoe- 
maker might  make  a  mistake  in  cutting  a  pair  of  shoes  and 
nothing  more  serious  would  happen  than  the  spoiling  of  a 
piece  of  leather.  This  he  could  throw  aside  and  begin  again 
on  a  new  piece;  but  if  a  physician  blunders  in  the  diagnosis 
of  a  case  or  administers  the  wrong  medicine,  the  mistake 
may  cost  a  life. 

A  skilled  mechanic  or  artisan  gains  his  knowledge  and 
acquires  his  skill  in  the  practice  of  his  trade  through  long 
apprenticeship,  in  which  he  begins  at  the  very  elements  of 
his  particular  craft  and  advances  by  gradual  steps  until  he 
reaches  the  degree  of  understanding  and  skill  that  will  enable 
him  to  produce  a  satisfactory  article.  It  is  only  after  he  has 
passed  through  this  long  period  of  training  or  apprentice- 
ship and  has  acquired  skill  and  confidence  in  the  handling 
of  tools  and  the  use  of  material,  that  he  is  allowed  to  work 
independently  without  direction  and  supervision  for  the 
construction  of  a  finished  article.  The  material  with  which  / 
the  artisan  works  is  too  valuable  to  be  wasted  by  the  experi- 
ments and  unskilled  efforts  of  the  learner.  He  must  become 
a  skilled  workman  before  his  employer  would  consider  it 
wise  to  allow  him  to  use  good  material.  If  such  a  carefully 
directed  apprenticeship  and  training  are  deemed  necessary 
for  the  worker  with  inert  matter,  how  much  more  important 
it  is  that  the  worker  with  human  lives  should  make  a  long 
and  thorough  preparation  before  he  begins  the  practice  of 


e  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

a  profession  with  human  beings  as  the  material  upon  which 
he  works. 

Every  profession  based  upon  fundamental  principles.  An 
important  phase  of  the  preparation  required  for  entering  any 
profession  is  the  gaining  of  a  knowledge  and  understanding 
of  the  fundamental  principles  which  govern  the  practice  of 
that  profession.  One  of  the  main  characteristics  of  the  pro- 
fessions, that  differentiates  them  from  all  other  vocations, 
is  that  they  are  founded  upon  clearly  defined  principles  that 
determine  and  regulate  their  procedure.  No  person  can 
make  any  pretense  at  belonging  to  the  professional  class 
unless  he  understands  these  principles  and  is  governed  by 
them  in  the  practice  of  his  particular  profession.  To  illus- 
trate: The  profession  of  medicine  is  founded  upon  certain 
fixed  principles  which  a  physician  must  understand  and  to 
which  he  must  adhere  in  order  to  be  a  recognized  member 
of  the  profession.  The  physician  of  the  old  school  must  know 
and  be  governed  in  his  practice  by  the  established  principles 
of  the  branch  of  medicine  to  which  he  belongs;  and  the 
physician  of  the  homoeopathic  school  of  medicine  must  know 
and  adhere  to  the  principles  of  his  particular  branch  of  the 
medical  profession.  Similarly,  a  clergyman  must  adhere  to 
the  principles  that  are  set  forth  in  the  creed  or  the  profession 
of  faith  of  the  particular  branch  of  the  Church  which  he  rep- 
resents. For  example,  the  Episcopalian  divine  must  adhere 
to  the  creed  of  the  Episcopalian  branch  of  the  Church,  the 
Presbyterian  clergyman  to  that  of  the  Presbyterian  branch; 
and  in  like  manner,  the  ministers  of  every  denomination 
must  understand  and  follow  the  regulating  principles  of  the 
particular  branch  to  which  they  belong,  in  order  to  maintain 
their  standings  in  their  denomination.  Thus  every  vocation 
that  makes  claim  to  being  a  profession  has  its  fundamental 
principles  that  govern  its  procedure  and  practice,  and  every 
person  who  wishes  to  rank  as  a  professional  worker  must 


PROFESSION  DEFINED  7 

understand  the  underlying  principles  of  his  chosen  profession 
and  apply  them  in  the  practice  of  it. 

The  ethical  element  in  professions.  The  fact  that  pro- 
fessional workers  deal  directly  with  human  beings  and  look 
for  the  results  of  their  efforts  in  some  phase  of  the  physical, 
mental,  or  moral  well-being  of  man,  presupposes  a  certain 
clearly  defined  relation  among  professional  co-workers  and 
between  themselves  and  those  persons  for  whom  they  work. 
These  relations  are  founded  upon  a  system  of  principles 
which  determine  the  correct  action  and  practice  of  individ- 
uals with  one  another  and  are  known  as  the  "ethical  rela- 
tions." In  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term  "ethics," 
there  can  be  no  ethical  relation  between  the  bricklayer  and 
the  bricks  with  which  he  works,  between  the  carpenter  and 
the  board  which  he  planes,  between  the  blacksmith  and  the 
iron  he  shapes,  or  between  the  farmer  and  the  land  which  he 
tills.  In  the  case  of  the  worker  with  human  beings,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  a  different  condition  exists.  From  the  very  fact 
that  the  material  with  which  he  deals  is  the  physical,  mental, 
or  moral  nature  of  man,  he  must  occupy  a  distinct  ethical 
relation  toward  the  individuals  in  whose  interest  he  labors, 
toward  those  who  entrust  him  with  his  important  task,  and 
toward  those  belonging  to  the  same  professional  class  as 
himself.  This  complex  relation  with  his  fellow-men  estab- 
lishes a  varied  code  of  ethics  which  he  must  observe  in  the 
practice  of  his  profession  and  in  his  dealings  with  people. 

Obligations  of  the  ethical  relations  of  a  physician.  The 
varied  code  of  ethics  which  must  be  observed  by  professional 
workers  is  well  illustrated  in  the  case  of  a  doctor  of  medicine. 
When  a  man  completes  his  necessary  preparation  for  the 
practice  of  medicine  and  announces  the  fact  to  the  commu- 
nity where  he  wishes  to  engage  in  his  profession,  there  imme- 
diately arises  a  new  set  of  relations  between  himself  and  the 
people  of  the  vicinity  —  relations  that  did  not  exist  before 


8  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

he  became  a  member  of  the  medical  profession,  when  he  was 
simply  a  private  individual  in  the  community.  Although 
somewhat  complex,  these  relations  are  definite  and  must  be 
strictly  observed  by  every  physician  who  wishes  to  maintain 
a  creditable  standing  in  his  profession.  Naturally,  the  special 
relation  of  physician  to  his  patient,  which  gives  the  name 
to  the  profession,  is  the  most  distinctive.  This  is  in  fact  a 
sacred  relation,  and  failure  to  observe  it  would  result  in  the 
expulsion  of  the  offender  from  the  profession ;  for  the  observ- 
ance of  this  ethical  relation  is  one  of  the  distinctive  charac- 
teristics of  the  profession  and  is  essential  to  it.  All  worthy 
members  of  the  medical  profession  guard  with  remarkable 
fidelity  this  ethical  relation  to  their  patients. 

Observance  of  ethics  among  the  clergy.  The  observance  of 
the  ethical  relation  of  a  pastor  to  his  people  and  of  the  clergy 
to  one  another  is  specially  obligatory.  The  clergyman,  by 
virtue  of  his  profession,  often  comes  to  know  and  understand 
facts  about  the  members  of  his  congregation  that  are  not 
known  by  the  community  in  general.  Every  minister  worthy 
of  the  name  holds  it  a  part  of  his  duty  as  pastor  to  guard 
carefully  all  such  information,  and  to  regard  as  sacred  the 
confidence  reposed  in  him.  The  strict  secrecy  which  he  main- 
tains about  the  private  affairs  of  his  parishioners  appears  the 
more  remarkable  when  one  considers  the  tendency  of  people 
to  repeat  interesting  information  and  bits  of  gossip.  The 
fact  that  the  true  pastor,  the  real  shepherd  of  his  flock,  does 
not  repeat  such  information  confided  to  him  shows  how 
highly  he  esteems  this  sacred  ethical  relation.  There  is 
nothing  finer  than  the  splendid  silence  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic priesthood  concerning  information  revealed  to  them  in 
the  confessional.  The  same  tribute  might  be  paid  to  the 
equally  conscientious  silence  of  the  worthy  members  of  the 
medical  profession  regarding  matters  revealed  to  them  by 
their  patients.    This  careful  and  consistent  observance  of 


PROFESSION  DEFINED  9 

their  ethical  relations  materially  aids  in  establishing  these 
professional  classes  in  public  esteem  and  confidence. 

Observance  of  the  ethics  of  the  legal  profession.  What 
has  been  said  of  the  conscientious  observance  by  clergymen 
and  physicians  of  their  special  ethical  relations  toward  their 
parishioners  and  patients  might  also  be  said  of  the  observ- 
ance by  lawyers  of  their  ethical  relations  toward  their  cli- 
ents. The  confidences  which  are  given  to  the  lawyer  by  his 
client  are  most  strictly  guarded.  The  client  knows  this,  and 
therefore  speaks  freely,  telling  his  counsel  without  reserve  all 
the  facts  of  his  case.  If  there  were  not  this  confidence  on  the 
part  of  the  client  in  his  attorney  and  the  resulting  frankness, 
the  lawyer  might  not  have  sufficient  facts  upon  which  to 
base  a  judgment  or  to  conduct  the  case,  and  the  client  would 
receive  little  assistance.  Another  phase  of  the  ethical  obliga- 
tion of  the  legal  profession  requires  that  no  honorable  attor- 
ney shall  take  a  case  or  receive  any  new  client  if  thereby  the 
interests  of  any  other  client  will  be  compromised.  A  lawyer 
would  not  be  a  legal  adviser  worthy  of  the  name  if  he  vio- 
lated either  of  these  ethical  relations  toward  his  clients. 
Moreover,  an  observance  of  the  ethics  of  the  profession 
toward  other  lawyers  is  also  obligatory  upon  each  member  of 
this  profession  and  requires  that  he  do  nothing  to  injure  or 
interfere  with  the  exercise  of  the  profession  by  his  col- 
leagues. Similarly,  many  examples  might  be  given  to  show 
that  every  profession  has  a  definite  code  of  ethics  which 
its  members  must  observe  in  the  exercise  of  the  profession 
in  order  to  maintain  a  creditable  standing  in  it. 

Summary  of  the  characteristics  of  professions.  It  is  evi- 
dent from  the  foregoing  discussion  that  a  profession  has 
certain  distinguishing  characteristics  that  differentiate  it 
from  all  other  classes  of  vocations.  It  has  been  shown  first, 
that  a  profession  deals  primarily  with  human  beings  rather 
than  with  inert  matter;  second,  that  it  is  founded  on  certain 


10  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

fundamental  principles  that  regulate  its  procedure;  third, 
that  it  requires  a  careful  and  exhaustive  preparation  on  the 
part  of  those  desiring  to  practice  a  profession;  and  finally, 
that  it  has  a  fixed  code  of  ethics  which  must  be  strictly  ob- 
served by  all  those  who  wish  to  maintain  a  standing  in  the 
professional  class.  It  is  evident  that  these  characteristics, 
and  the  consequent  requirements  which  the  professions  im- 
pose upon  those  persons  desiring  to  enter  them,  differentiate 
all  professional  from  the  non-professional  vocations.  While  it 
is  true  that  some  of  the  other  vocations  may  have  one  or  even 
more  of  these  characteristics,  there  is  no  other  that  possesses 
them  in  the  same  degree  and  combines  all  these  requirements 
of  a  profession.    < 

It  is  true  that  certain  vocations  possess  one  or  more  of  the 
characteristics  of  a  profession,  but  no  one  of  them  combines 
all  the  characteristics  necessary  to  a  profession.  For  example, 
a  man  engaged  in  commerce  deals  with  people  as  well  as  with 
material  products;  but  his  work  is  never  measured  in  terms 
of  human  beings.  He  handles  commodities  and  it  is  in  these 
commodities  that  he  looks  for  his  results.  Therefore  he  is 
primarily  concerned  with  the  size  of  his  stock,  the  state  of  the 
market,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  business.  So,  while  he  does 
deal  with  people,  the  results  of  his  labors  are  measured  by 
material  rather  than  by  human  results  or  values.  Moreover, 
commerce  does  not  require  a  professional  preparation  on  the 
part  of  those  who  wish  to  engage  in  it.  An  analysis  of  any 
other  particular  vocation  will  reveal  the  fact  that,  although 
it  may  have  some  of  the  characteristics  of  a  profession,  it 
does  not  have  them  all,  nor  is  a  professional  preparation 
necessary  for  the  practice  of  it. 

Requirements  of  a  profession  applied  to  teaching.  We  are 
now  prepared  to  consider  the  question  as  to  whether  the 
vocation  of  teaching  is  a  profession  as  defined  in  the  forego- 
ing discussion.  Teaching  unquestionably  meets  the  first  re- 


PROFESSION  DEFINED  11 

quirement  of  dealing  with  human  beings,  for  it  is  directly  con- 
cerned with  persons.  The  material  with  which  the  teacher 
works  is  the  child,  and  he  looks  for  his  results  primarily  in 
some  form  of  human  development.  His  purpose  in  a  general 
way  is  to  aid  those  who  come  under  his  instruction  in  the 
development  of  individual  efficiency  for  all  of  life's  relations. 
In  order  that  a  person  may  realize  in  himself  this  ideal  devel- 
opment, he  must  have  a  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body;  and 
he  must  be  guided  by  high  moral  aims  and  aspirations. 
Therefore  the  real  teacher  is  concerned  with  the  entire  well- 
being  of  the  individual,  physical,  mental,  and  moral;  for  it 
is  only  when  a  person's  whole  being  acts  simultaneously 
and  in  harmony  that  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency  can  be 
attained.  Consequently  it  will  be  seen  that  the  teacher's 
particular  purpose  must  in  some  degree  include  that  of  the 
physician  whose  aim  is  a  sound  body,  that  of  the  clergyman 
whose  aim  is  a  right  moral  and  spiritual  development,  and 
that  of  the  lawyer  whose  aim  is  correct  business  relations 
and  practices. 

Teaching  based  on  established  principles.  Another  re- 
quirement which  must  be  satisfied  before  teaching  can  be 
classed  as  a  profession  is  that  it  be  founded  upon  scientific 
principles  which  determine  its  procedure.  These  must  be 
understood  by  the  workers  in  this  vocation  and  applied  in 
their  practice  of  it.  In  addition  to  the  body  of  knowledge 
in  which  the  teacher  must  be  able  to  give  the  desired  in- 
struction, he  must  have  other  knowledge  and  experience 
before  he  can  rightly  be  admitted  to  the  class  of  profes- 
sional teachers.  Since  he  deals  directly  with  life  and  its 
problems,  he  must  have  some  knowledge  of  life  philosophy 
and  know  how  to  apply  it  in  his  teaching.  Because  he 
deals  with  the  human  mind,  he  must  have  an  understand- 
ing of  psychological  principles  as  applied  to  teaching.  Since 
he  gives  instruction,  he  is  concerned  with  the  principles  and 


12  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

laws  governing  method.  As  he  is  concerned  with  the 
physical  well-being  of  his  pupils,  he  must  know  something 
of  physiological  principles  and  the  laws  of  health.  Inasmuch 
as  the  teacher's  aim  includes  the  formation  of  right  ideals 
of  life  and  conduct  in  the  minds  of  the  young,  he  must  pos- 
sess a  sound  philosophy  and  know  how  best  to  impart  it 
to  others.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  teaching  has  its 
system  of  underlying  principles  that  are  as  definite  and  as 
essential  as  those  of  the  science  of  medicine,  of  the  profes- 
sion of  the  ministry,  or  of  the  practice  of  law. 

Agreement  on  fundamental  laws  not  essential.  It  is  as- 
serted by  some  persons  that  there  can  be  no  profession  of 
teaching,  because  there  is  not  universal  agreement  upon  the 
principles  or  laws  that  govern  child  growth  and  develop- 
ment. It  is  further  contended  that  because  there  can  be  no 
common  agreement  upon  the  right  methods  of  teaching,  or 
upon  the  relative  values  of  the  subjects  to  be  taught,  there 
can  be  no  profession  of  teaching.  Universality  of  agreement 
upon  underlying  principles  and  laws  has  not  been  considered 
necessary  for  the  establishment  of  other  professions;  for,  if 
it  had,  probably  no  profession  could  have  been  founded. 
For  example,  in  medicine  there  are  a  number  of  schools  dif- 
fering widely  in  the  basal  principles  upon  which  they  are 
founded;  and  yet  no  one  questions  the  existence  of  a  pro- 
fession of  medicine.  In  the  Church  there  are  wide  differ- 
ences in  creeds  and  beliefs;  but  no  one  questions  the  existence 
of  the  profession  of  the  ministry.  From  these  and  other  ex- 
amples which  might  be  cited,  we  are  justified  in  the  conclu- 
sion that,  although  the  leaders  in  education  may  not  all  agree 
upon  the  principles  and  methods  to  be  followed  in  teaching, 
that  fact  does  not  prove  that  there  is  no  profession  of  teach- 
ing. Notwithstanding  the  diversity  of  opinion  among  these 
leaders,  there  arc  certain  basic  laws  and  principles  which  are 
accepted  by  a  large  number  of  educators  and  made  the  guid- 


PROFESSION  DEFINED  13 

ing  principles  of  their  procedure.  So  far  as  adherence  to  regu- 
lative laws  and  principles  is  concerned,  these  persons  are  as 
truly  professional  as  is  the  physician,  the  clergyman,  or  the 
lawyer. 

Fundamental  principles  of  education.  Some  years  ago  Dr. 
Do  Garmo,  the  McMurrys,  and  other  educators,  made  a 
careful  study  of  the  educational  philosophy  of  Herbart;  and 
as  a  result  of  that  study,  they  formulated  the  ideas  of  Her- 
bart into  a  set  of  educational  principles  that  in  one  form  or 
another  have  gained  wide  currency  in  this  country.  A  large 
number  of  teachers,  who  had  been  working  without  any  fixed 
pedagogical  theories  to  guide  them,  have  accepted  and  ap- 
plied these  principles  in  their  teaching  and  have  thus  be- 
come real  professional  teachers.  In  this  way  a  Herbartian 
school  which  stands  for  certain  definite  progressive  educa- 
tional ideas  and  principles  may  be  said  to  have  been  founded 
in  our  country.  The  educational  ideas  of  other  educational 
leaders,  notably  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and  Herbert  Spencer, 
have  also  been  made  the  bases  of  pedagogical  systems  by 
their  admirers  and  followers.  Thus  various  schools  repre- 
senting educational  ideas  and  methods  have  arisen;  and 
earnest  teachers  are  more  and  more  taking  these  systems  of 
educational  philosophy  as  the  regulating  principles  of  their 
work,  and  are  testing  in  their  classrooms  the  theories  and 
plans  of  these  progressive  educational  thijikers  and  leaders. 
Although  it  is  unfortunately  true  that  there  are  many  per- 
sons engaged  in  teaching  who  do  not  have  a  definite  set  of 
pedagogical  principles  to  guide  them  in  their  work,  this  docs 
not  prove  that  teaching  is  not  a  profession.  There  are  a  great 
number  of  this  large  class  of  workers  who  are  entitled  to  be 
included  in  the  professional  classes  as  truly  as  any  workers 
in  the  acknowledged  professions. 

Special  preparation  of  teachers  necessary.  What  has  al- 
ready been  said  about  the  importance  of  a  careful  prepara- 


14  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

tion  for  those  desiring  to  engage  in  any  profession  applies 
with  particular  force  to  teachers.  The  human  material  with 
which  the  teacher  works  is  in  its  plastic  and  formative  period 
of  childhood  and  youth,  when  lasting  impressions  are  made, 
when  character  is  formed,  when  bent  and  direction  are  given 
to  young  lives  —  in  short,  when  human  beings  undergo  the 
influences  that  are  to  mould  them  and  to  determine  in  a 
large  measure  the  whole  trend  of  their  future  lives.  It  is  evi- 
dent to  every  thinking  person  that,  in  order  to  meet  the  ex- 
acting requirements  of  teaching  as  a  profession,  a  teacher 
must  make  a  more  extensive  preparation  than  the  mastering 
of  the  facts  of  general  knowledge  which  he  is  required  to 
impart.  He  must  acquire  this  knowledge,  and  in  addition 
to  this  he  must  make  such  a  preparai^ion  as  will  fit  him  to 
be  a  professional  teacher  in  the^best  sense  of  the  term. 

Since  the  teacher  must  have  in  mind  final  character  results 
that  determine,  direct,  and  govern  life,  he  must  of  necessity 
have  a  well-defined  philosophy  of  life  and  be  himself  in- 
fluenced consciously  or  unconsciously  by  right  philosophical 
laws  and  principles.  Because  he  is  helping  human  beings  to 
prepare  for  social  life,  he  must  understand  some  of  the  rules 
and  principles  which  are  fundamental  in  the  government 
of  society.  In  order  that  he  may  be  able  to  give  such  direc- 
tion to  the  mental  development  of  the  child  as  will  secure 
positive  results,  he  must  have  a  working  knowledge  of  the 
fundamental  laws  of  psychology.  Many  of  the  failures  of 
teachers  to  gain  adequate  results  in  their  teaching  are  due  to 
their  ignorance  of  psychological  laws  and  principles.  No 
person  can  rightly  be  considered  a  professional  worker  until 
he  has  gained  some  definite  knowledge  of  the  mental  proc- 
esses and  is  familiar  with  their  nature  and  character. 

Fundamental  principles  of  education  necessary.  There 
are  certain  fundamental  ])rincij)les  of  education  whi(;h  must 
be  common  to  all  teaching  in  order  to  give  it  unity  and  make 


PROFESSION  DEFINED  15 

it  effective.  A  knowledge  of  these  principles  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  the  teacher;  for  no  one  should  presume  to  in-i, 
struct  the  young  who  does  not  have  some  knowledge  of  the 
laws  that  govern  effective  teaching  and  some  understanding 
of  their  proper  application.  Moreover,  the  teacher,  in  addi- 
tion to  having  a  general  aim  in  all  his  teaching,  must  have  a 
specific  aim  for  each  subject.  He  must  also  have  a  definite  j^ 
standard  to  be  used  in  determining  the  value  of  the  work  of  ^^ 
his  pupils.  Hence  an  important  part  of  a  teacher's  prepara- 
tion is  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  at  least  the  most  important 
fundamental  laws  of  education  and  to  acquire  the  ability 
to  apply  them  intelligently  and  systematically  in  order  that 
his  teaching  may  be  effective.  The  fact  that  the  work  of  the 
teacher  includes  so  many  different  elements  requires  him  to 
have  a  knowledge  of  a  more  varied  set  of  principles,  perhaps, 
than  the  workers  in  any  other  profession. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  there  are  many  persons  who 
have  a  definite  philosophy  of  life  and  yet  are  ignorant  of  the 
fact.  There  are  many  teachers  who  have  no  knowledge  of 
psychology  as  a  science  and  very  little  conscious  knowledge 
of  philosophical  theories,  who  yet  do  unconsciously  apply 
psychological  laws  and  principles  in  their  teaching.  They 
have  probably  acquired  their  understanding  of  these  prin- 
ciples through  many  years  of  experience  —  many  years  of 
trial  and  failure,  in  which  much  valuable  time  has  been 
wasted  and  much  precious  material  spoiled.  If  they  had 
made  the  proper  preparation  before  venturing  to  instruct 
the  young,  before  offering  themselves  as  teachers,  there  need 
not  have  been  all  this  waste;  and  the  noble  profession  of 
teaching  would  not  have  been  made  to  suffer  while  providing 
them  with  the  means  for  their  long  apprenticeship. 

The  ethical  element  in  teaching.  Still  another  distinctive 
characteristic  that  teaching  must  possess  before  it  can  l)e 
considered  truly  a  profession  is  the  ethical  element.  Since  the 


16  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

teacher  is  concerned  directly  with  children,  he  must  under- 
stand and  maintain  his  ethical  obligations  toward  them. 
In  addition  to  the  ethical  obligations  of  the  teacher  to  his 
pupils,  which  are  of  primary  importance,  he  has  other  ethi- 
cal relations  to  interpret  and  observe  toward  all  those  per- 
sons who,  in  one  capacity  or  another,  are  actively  interested 
in  the  education  and  development  of  the  child.  He  must  ful- 
-fiU  his  ethical  obligations  toward  the  board  of  education, 
toward  his  superintendent  and  other  official  superiors, 
toward  the  parents  of  his  pupils,  and  toward  his  fellow- 
teachers.  These  ethical  obligations  of  the  teacher  will  be 
discussed  more  at  length  in  a  subsequent  chapter.  In  this 
connection  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  in  no  other  profession 
are  the  ethical  relations  and  obligations  more  certain  and 
positive  and  their  observance  more  potent  and  sacred  than 
in  that  of  teaching.  The  very  fact  that  the  teacher  is  con- 
cerned with  the  best  ideals  of  conduct  and  life  makes  it 
obligatory  upon  him  to  interpret  correctly  and  to  observe 
conscientiously  the  ethical  laws  in  all  his  relations  with 
other  persons. 

Conclusion.  In  the  foregoing  argument  it  has  been  shown 
that,  to  belong  to  the  professional  class,  a  person  must  work 
directly  with  human  beings,  must  have  a  definite  system  of 
scientific  principles  to  regulate  the  practice  of  his  particular 
profession,  must  have  a  professional  preparation  for  his 
work,  and  must  understand  and  observe  all  the  ethical  ob- 
ligations of  his  profession.  It  has  been  further  demonstrated 
that  there  are,  in  a  great  many  organizations  of  teachers,  a 
large  number  who  fulfill  all  the  requirements  of  professional 
workers  arid  are  entitled  to  be  ranked  as  such.  The  fact  that 
there  are  persons  in  the  profession  who  have  not  made  a 
professional  preparation  for  it  and  who  do  not  observe  the 
laws  and  principles  of  pedagogy,  docs  not  lessen  the  right  of 
those  who  have  done  so  to  be  classed  as  professional  workers; 


PROFESSION  DEFINED  17 

nor  does  it  prevent  teaching  from  being  classed  as  a  pro- 
fession. The  presence  of  even  a  large  number  of  profession- 
ally unprepared  teachers  in  the  schools  does  not  prove  that 
there  are  no  professional  teachers  or  that  teaching  is  not  a 
profession,  any  more  than  the  presence  of  quacks  among  the 
worthy  members  of  the  medical  profession  proves  that  there 
is  no  profession  of  medicine.  The  fact  that  teaching  does 
meet  all  the  requirements  of  a  profession  as  certainly  as 
any  of  the  vocations  that  are  unquestionably  classed  as 
such  warrants  us  in  the  conclusion  that  it  is  a  profession, 
and  that  those  teachers  who  fulfill  the  conditions  and  attain 
the  standards  set  for  workers  in  this  profession,  both  in  their 
preparation  and  in  their  practice,  belong  to  the  professional 
class.  It  might  be  added  further  that,  not  only  must  it  be 
conceded  that  teaching  is  a  profession  in  the  fullest  and 
best  sense  of  the  word,  but  since  it  has  for  its  purpose  the 
development  and  training  of  the  young  for  life,  it  is  the  most 
important  and  the  noblest  of  the  professions.  , 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

The  Principles  of  Education,  Ruediger,  chap.  i. 
N.E.A.  Proceedings,  1907,  Kirk,  pp.  224-27,  661-68. 
The  Teacher  and  the  School,  Colgrove,  chap.  i. 
The  Problem  of  Vacationed  Education,  Snedden,  pp.  22-20. 
All  the  Children  of  All  the  People,  Smith,  p.  241. 

EXERCISES 

1.  To  what  general  class  of  vocations  does  each  of  the  following  belong: 
farmer,  author,  actor,  hotel-keeper,  dentist?  Could  a  man  be  a 
professional  man,  a  commercial  man,  and  an  industrial  man  at  the 
same  time? 

2.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  "independent  man"?  Which 
is  the  more  independent  man,  the  trapper  or  hunter  in  the  woods,  or 
the  millionaire?   The  American  Indian  or  the  modern  business  man? 

3.  Make  as  complete  a  list  of  the  persons  who  contribute  to  your  welfare 
as  you  can.  Show  that  you  in  turn  contribute  in  some  way  to  the  wel- 
fare of  each  of  those  you  name. 


18  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

4.  Which  vocation  of  those  you  know  is  probably  the  most  independent? 
Give  reason  for  your  answer. 

5.  Name  some  vocations  that  require,  or  should  require,  a  long  prepara- 
tion before  a  person  begins  his  work  in  them. 

6.  Name  some  bene6ts  to  the  schools  and  to  the  teachers  themselves 
when  the  latter  give  time  and  study  to  preparing  for  their  work. 

7.  If  the  salary  or  income  were  the  same,  what  would  be  your  choice  of 
a  profession?  Give  reason  for  your  answer. 

8.  Name  some  things  in  life  which  money  cannot  buy  that  are  more  to 
be  desired  than  money.  Can  these  things  be  taught?  How  did  you 
acquire  them?  Explain  how  they  can  be  developed.  Consider  whether 
they  are  neglected  by  some  people. 

9.  "Drudgery  is  work  without  joy." 

"Joy  in  work  is  the  greatest  need  of  the  American  workman." 

"A  man  who  counts  gold  may  have  a  life  of  drudgery.   A  man  who 

digs  ditches  may  have  a  life  of  joy." 

Discuss  these  statements  and  consider  whether  your  work  is  drudg- 
ery. 
10.  Write  briefly  an  argument  for  classing  teaching  among  the  pro- 
fessions. 


CHAPTER  n 

SCHOOL  ETHICS 

Different  persons  interested  in  the  education  of  the  child. 
There  are  in  every  school  organization  a  large  number  of 
persons  who  have  a  part,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  in  the 
education  of  each  child  in  it.  It  is  not  alone  the  parents  of  the 
child  who  are  concerned  with  his  development  and  growth. 
There  are  numbers  of  other  persons  who  are  also  actively 
concerned  with  his  preparation  for  his  place  as  a  man  in  the 
community  and  the  nation.  Among  them  are  the  board  of 
education,  the  superintendent  of  schools,  and  the  teacher. 
The  relation  of  each  to  the  problem  is  clearly  defined.  The 
board  of  education,  selected  by  the  citizens,  has  an  impor- 
tant part  to  perform  in  relation  to  child  development  and 
culture.  It  is  to  this  body  of  citizens  that  is  delegated  the 
duty  of  providing  the  means  through  which  the  child  may 
receive  that  part  of  his  education  and  preparation  for  life 
which  it  is  the  province  of  the  school  to  give  him.  The  super- 
intendent of  schools  also  has  an  important  duty  to  fulfill 
toward  the  child,  for  upon  him  devolves  the  management 
and  the  direction  of  the  means  employed  for  the  instruction 
of  the  child  in  the  school.  The  teacher,  next  to  the  parent, 
has  the  most  responsible  task  of  all  those  who  are  concerned 
with  the  education  and  development  of  the  child,  for  to  him 
is  delegated  the  important  duty  of  giving  the  child  the  direc- 
tion and  assistance  in  the  preparation  for  life  which  the 
home  and  the  other  social  institutions  can  no  longer  give. 

Special  responsibility  of  the  teacher.  The  teacher,  in  dis- 
charging his  responsible  duty,  represents  in  a  large  degree  all 
the  other  persons  who  are  directly  interested  in  child  edu- 


20  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

cation.  The  responsibility,  thus  transferred  to  the  teacher, 
gives  him  special  opportunities  for  performing  his  task.  Be- 
cause of  the  new  experience  and  the  new  viewpoint  which  he 
brings  into  the  life  of  the  child,  he  can  open  up  to  the  young 
mind  a  new  world  of  wonder  and  interest.  This  arouses  or 
increases  the  reverence  of  the  child  for  the  teacher's  knowl- 
edge and  widsom,  which  makes  it  possible  for  the  latter  to 
mould  the  young  mind  and  character.  This  peculiar  and 
intimate  relation  of  the  teacher  to  the  child  and  the  sacred 
charge  it  imposes  give  him  special  and  binding  obligations 
toward  the  child  and  toward  those  who  have  committed 
this  charge  to  him. 

Interdependence  of  ethical  relation.  The  different  persons 
concerned  in  the  child's  education  and  development,  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously,  combine  their  interests  with  the 
interest  of  the  teacher;  and  for  this  reason  his  obligations 
become  very  complex.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  noted  ,n 
that  while  the  teacher  sustains  a  special  relation  and  obU-  ' 
gation  toward  each  of  the  persons  or  groups  of  persons  who 
are  concerned  with  the  problem  of  the  education  of  the  child, 
each  of  them  has  a  corresponding  obligation  to  him,  a  fact 
frequently  overlooked  in  the  consideration  of  this  matter. 
The  obligation  of  each  of  these  persons  to  the  teacher  is 
quite  as  binding  and  should  be  as  carefully  observed  as  the 
obligation  of  the  teacher  to  each  of  them.  Since  these  persons 
have  delegated  to  the  teacher  certain  responsibilities,  many 
of  which  rightly  belong  to  themselves,  they  are  under  ob- 
ligation to  give  him  their  moral  support.  Hence  their  ethi- 
cal relations  toward  him  are  peculiarly  binding.  This  dual 
character  of  the  ethical  relation  or  the  ethical  interdepend- 
ence of  two  persons  between  whom  this  relation  exists  is 
important  and  should  be  noted  in  the  consideration  of  any 
question  of  ethical  obligations.  The  ethical  relations  of  the 
teacher  to  the  community,  to  the  board  of  education,  to  his 


SCHOOL  ETHICS  21 

coworkers,  and  their  corresponding  ethical  obligations  to 
him  will  be  discussed  briefly  in  succeeding  paragraphs. 

The  ethical  relation  of  the  community  to  the  teacher. 
The  fact  that  the  community  delegates  the  formal  instruc- 
tion of  its  children  to  the  teacher  establishes  a  twofold  rela- 
tion which  it  should  respect  and  observe.  The  one  is  the 
obligation  to  the  teacher,  and  the  other  is  its  duty  toward 
the  children.  Since  the  teacher  performs  a  task  intrusted 
to  him  by  others,  it  is  obligatory  upon  those  who  have  dele- 
gated this  work  to  him  to  see  that  conditions  are  provided 
for  his  doing  the  work  properly.  Suitable  buildings,  prop- 
erly heated  and  hghted,  should  be  provided;  and  these  build- 
ings should  be  equipped  with  the  best  apparatus  for  the 
performance  of  the  work.  This  equipment  should  be  in- 
creased from  time  to  time,  as  the  need  requires,  with  the 
newest  and  best  in  books,  maps,  apparatus,  and  such  special 
appliances  as  the  particular  work  of  the  class  requires.  This 
community  duty  is  more  than  a  mere  business  obligation. 
It  is  an  ethical  duty,  the  neglect  of  which  is  often  disas- 
trous to  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  welfare  of  the  boys 
and  girls  of  the  community,  as  well  as  to  the  plans  and  pur- 
poses of  the  teacher.  Moreover,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  commu- 
nity to  cooperate  with  the  teacher  for  the  furtherance  of  any 
plan  which  has  for  its  purpose  the  improvement  of  school 
conditions  and  the  best  interests  of  the  child.  The  com- 
munity, and  particularly  the  parents,  should  uphold  the 
teacher's  authority  and  acts  so  far  as  possible,  and  be  very 
slow  to  criticize,  even  though  the  teacher  may  have  done 
something  which  they  do  not  understand  or  which  they 
disapprove.  If  such  a  case  occurs,  it  is  better  to  investigate 
carefully,  and  if  necessary  talk  with  the  teacher  regarding  it. 
Even  though  a  teacher  may  have  erred,  it  is  neither  wise 
nor  just  to  advertise  the  matter  and  thereby  lessen  the 
value  of  his  work  and  influence  through  open  discussion  and 


22  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

criticism.  If  parents  and  the  community  in  general  would 
observe  proper  ethical  obligations  toward  the  teachers  in 
the  schools  and  encourage  them  by  giving  them  helpful 
cooperation  and  sympathy,  the  teachers  would  have  more 
joy  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties,  would  put  more  heart 
into  their  work,  and  would  achieve  better  results. 

The  obligations  of  the  community  to  its  children.  A  few 
suggestions  regarding  the  obligations  of  the  community  to 
its  children  will  not  be  out  of  place  at  this  point.  In  addition 
to  the  duty  of  the  community  to  provide  suitable  school  con- 
ditions for  the  education  of  its  children,  it  has  a  direct  and 
vital  part  in  their  development  and  education.  Some  of 
these  community  influences  are  not  always  thought  of  in 
relation  to  child  welfare;  but  since  they  are  all  distinct  fac- 
tors in  the  formation  of  the  child's  ideals,  their  importance 
in  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  child  education  should  be 
understood.  In  the  first  place,  most  children  obtain  their 
early  ideas  of  government  from  the  community  life,  rather 
than  in  the  school.  In  like  manner  they  obtain  their  first 
concepts  of  community  conditions.  If  the  community  stand- 
ards of  excellence  are  of  a  high  order,  the  children,  through 
their  personal  observations  and  from  listening  to  the  con- 
versation of  their  elders  in  the  home  and  elsewhere  upon 
these  matters,  will  naturally  acquire  the  same  high  stand- 
ards. 

Unconscious  education  in  community  ideals.  Many  il- 
lustrations of  the  child's  unconscious  education  in  commu- 
nity ideals  might  be  given,  but  a  single  one  will  suflSce  as  a 
suggestion.  For  example,  if  the  streets  are  kept  in  good  con- 
dition, the  walks  properly  placed  and  kept  in  repair,  the 
sanitary  condition  of  the  town  carefully  maintained,  and  all 
the  many  municipal  interests  given  proper  attention,  the 
children  will  accept  these  as  correct  community  standards 
and  adopt  them  for  their  own.     If,  on  the  contrary,  the 


SCHOOL  ETHICS  23 

municipal  affairs  are  poorly  managed,  if  the  streets  and 
walks  are  poor  and  untidy,  the  sanitary  conditions  bad,  and 
the  town  presents  a  slovenly  and  unwholesome  appearance 
generally,  —  the  children  of  the  community  will  acquire  low 
community  standards  and  the  same  conditions  will  be  re- 
flected in  their  lives  and  habits.  A  community,  therefore, 
through  its  municipal  examples  may  do  its  children  incal- 
culable harm,  even  though  it  is  spending  money  generously 
for  schools. 

Special  community  obligations.  In  addition  to  attention 
to  what  might  be  termed  unconscious  community  influences 
in  child  education,  there  are  some  special  obligations  of  the 
community  toward  its  children  which  also  call  for  intelli- 
gent consideration  on  the  part  of  parents.  Many  of  these 
are  so  apparent  that  the  mere  mention  of  them  is  suflB- 
cient  to  call  attention  to  their  relation  to  the  problem  of 
child  welfare.  First  in  importance  is,  of  course,  the  duty 
of  providing  proper  school  conditions,  as  already  discussed. 
Second  in  importance  only  to  proper  school  and  correct 
municipal  conditions  come  the  maintenance  of  religious  in- 
fluences, the  providing  of  suitable  library  facilities,  the  se- 
curing and  permitting  of  only  wholesome  places  of  amuse- 
ment, the  encouraging  and  maintaining  of  organizations  for 
social  betterment,  and  the  creating  of  such  community  in- 
fluences as  the  local  needs  require.  The  responsibility  of  the 
community  toward  its  children  is  great,  and  those  who  have 
the  direction  of  community  interests  should  see  to  it  that  this 
obligation  is  conscientiously  discharged,  not  only  in  the 
maintenance  of  schools,  but  in  so  guarding  and  regulating 
local  conditions  that  the  influence  which  these  exert  may  be 
of  a  wholesome  character. 

Obligation  of  the  board  of  education  to  teachers.  The 
board  of  education  bears  an  even  closer  relation  to  the 
teachers  than  does  the  community;  for  it  is  to  this  official 


24  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

body  that  the  community  intrusts  the  execution  of  many 
of  its  duties  and  obUgations  to  the  teacher  and  to  the  school. 
Because  these  men  are  vested  with  the  authority  to  represent 
the  community  in  the  conduct  of  school  matters,  it  is  their 
primary  duty  to  act  for  the  best  interests  of  the  school  and 
not  allow  themselves  to  be  influenced  by  personal  motives 
or  prejudices.  The  relation  of  the  board  of  education  to 
the  school  is  usually  considered  merely  a  business  or  admin- 
istrative one.  This  is  in  part  correct.  It  is  the  duty  of 
the  board  to  provide  the  school  plant  and  attend  to  its  up- 
keep, to  engage  and  pay  teachers,  and  to  attend  to  all  jnat- 
ters  of  business  in  connection  with  the  maintenance  of  the 
school.  At  the  same  time,  the  members  of  the  board  of  educa- 
tion have  an  ethical  relation  to  maintain  toward  the  teacher 
and  the  school,  which  is  as  obligatory  as  the  observance  of 
their  business  relations. 

Though  the  ethical  relation  of  the  board  of  education  to 
the  teacher  is  varied,  it  is  definite;  and  it  should  be  under- 
stood and  carefully  observed  by  all  persons  who  presume  to 
serve  the  community  in  this  responsible  capacity.  In  order 
that  this  relation  may  be  rightly  understood  by  the  persons 
who  occupy  this  position,  it  should  be  the  first  duty  of  board 
members  to  inform  themselves  regarding  all  matters  relating 
to  the  management  of  school  affairs.  They  are  the  oflScial 
representatives  of  the  parents;  and  as  such  it  is  the  more 
binding  upon  them  to  give  the  teacher  their  moral  support 
in  his  management  of  the  school.  Inasmuch  as  they  have 
employed  the  teacher,  it  is  obligatory  upon  them  to  encour- 
age and  assist  him  in  whatever  he  does  for  the  good  of  the 
school.  They  should  never  allow  themselves  to  be  influ- 
enced by  idle  gossip  or  individual  complaints  about  a 
teacher  without  thoroughly  investigating  the  cause. 

When  the  school  board  appoints  a  teacher  for  any  other 
reason  than  merit,  or  unjustly  discharges  him  when  he 


SCHOOL  ETHICS  £5 

possesses  merit,  it  violates  a  vital  ethical  relation  to  the 
teacher  and  to  the  pupils.  When  a  school  board  fails  to 
provide  the  best  school  plant  which  the  available  funds  will 
permit,  or  neglects  to  keep  the  same  in  proper  condition,  it 
violates  an  ethical  obligation  as  certainly  as  it  disregards  a 
business  law.  Persons  who  serve  on  boards  of  education  may 
sometimes  be  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  their  ethical  obliga- 
tions and  of  what  is  required  of  them ;  but  this  fact  does  not 
excuse  them  for  neglect  of  such  vital  matters.  Men  who  are 
not  competent  to  direct  the  business  affairs  of  a  school  and 
to  fulfill  the  various  obligations  connected  with  the  posi- 
tion should  not  be  selected  for  this  responsible  position,  for 
the  same  reason  that  incompetent  teachers  should  not  be 
allowed  to  direct  the  education  of  the  young.  It  should  not 
be  necessary  to  mention  the  obligation  of  the  board  members 
to  make  the  best  interests  of  the  school  their  primary  concern 
instead  of  allowing  themselves  to  be  influenced  by  personal 
interest.  Unfortunately,  as  every  one  knows,  some  persons, 
even  in  this  responsible  position,  do  permit  themselves  to 
sacrifice  the  good  of  the  school  for  personal  reasons.  The 
disastrous  effect  upon  the  school  when  personal  interest  or 
politics  is  allowed  to  influence  the  acts  of  a  board  is  well 
known;  for  the  factor  of  politics  is  always  destructive  to  the 
observance  of  ethical  obligations. 

Ethical  obligations  of  the  superintendent  of  schools.  The 
superintendent  of  a  school,  by  virtue  of  his  position,  must 
understand  and  maintain  many  and  complex  relations 
toward  those  who  are  concerned  with  himself  in  the  educa- 
tion of  the  child.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  his  relation  to 
the  board  of  education  that  has  intrusted  him  with  the 
responsibility  of  directing  the  educational  affairs  of  the 
school.  This  relation  is  definite  and  clear;  and  few  intelli- 
gent superintendents  are  so  ignorant  of  its  nature  or  so 
indifferent  to  their  obligations  as  to  violate  it.   Again,  there 


26  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

is  the  relation  to  the  community,  and  particularly  to  the 
parents,  which  the  superintendent  must  understand  and 
carefully  observe  if  he  wishes  to  obtain  the  best  results 
from  his  management  of  the  school.  Finally,  the  most 
direct  and  important  of  all  the  relations  of  the  superintend- 
ent are  those  to  the  teachers  and  to  the  pupils  under  his 
direction.  The  obligations  of  the  superintendent  to  the 
board  of  education  and  to  the  community  are  so  definite 
and  well  understood  that  it  is  necessary  only  to  call  atten- 
tion to  them.  His  ethical  relation  to  his  teachers  may  not 
be  generally  understood  and  hence  it  is  necessary  to  mention 
a  few  of  the  more  important  matters  which  it  involves. 

Ethical  relation  of  the  superintendent  to  the  teachers. 
The  superintendent,  as  the  ofiicial  head  of  the  school  system 
and  the  director  of  its  educational  policy,  must  bear  the  re- 
sponsibility of  the  administration  of  the  school.  To  him 
belongs  the  task  of  determining  the  course  of  study  to  be 
followed,  of  deciding  upon  the  character  of  the  equipment 
needed  for  the  school,  and  of  outlining  the  methods  to  be 
employed  in  the  everyday  work  of  the  school.  He  usually 
assists  the  school  board  in  selecting  the  teachers  for  the 
school,  and  he  assigns  the  latter  their  respective  duties.  He 
must  plan  and  direct  the  use  of  the  subject-matter  so  that 
unity  of  purpose  may  be  secured  and  a  proper  balance  in 
quality  of  work  may  be  maintained.  The  teachers  under  his 
direction  have  a  right  to  expect  from  him  full  explanations 
of  the  course  of  study  and  its  sequence,  a  statement  of  the 
principles  which  underlie  it,  and  such  special  instruction  and 
information  as  is  necessary  for  its  logical  and  sequential  de- 
velopment. They  may  also  expect  from  him  suggestions  in 
method  and  management  and  any  other  help  which  they 
may  need  for  the  solution  of  their  school  problems.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  professional  growth  of  the  teacher  de- 
pends in  great  measure  upon  the  help  and  assistance  he 


SCHOOL  ETinCS  27 

receives  from  the  superintendent  or  other  supervisor,  the 
moral  obUgation  and  the  ethical  duty  of  these  supervisors  to 
him  are  certain  and  unquestioned.  Further,  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  superintendent  to  protect  and  enhance  the  professional 
reputation  of  his  teachers.  Inasmuch  as  the  relation  of  the 
superintendent  to  his  teachers  grows  directly  out  of  the  pro- 
fession in  which  they  are  engaged  and  is  of  vital  importance 
to  those  concerned,  it  is  evident  that  a  careful  observance  of 
the  ethics  of  the  situation  is  necessary  for  the  maintenance 
of  a  good  professional  standing. 

Ethical  relation  of  superintendent  to  pupils.  Since  the 
superintendent's  proper  understanding  and  interpretation  of 
his  oflBcial  functions  determines  so  largely  the  value  of  the 
school  to  the  pupils  in  it,  he  sustains  a  direct  ethical  relation 
to  them.  As  the  educational  director  of  the  school  system, 
he  must  plan  and  supervise  the  work  of  the  school  for  the 
best  interests  of  the  children  under  his  care.  Some  super- 
intendents are  inclined  to  regard  their  relation  to  the  board 
of  education  and  to  the  community  as  of  more  importance 
than  their  relation  to  the  pupils  in  the  schools :  but  since  the 
schools  were  instituted  for  the  children,  the  obligation  of  the 
superintendent  to  these  children,  either  directly,  or  indi- 
rectly through  the  teachers,  is  of  first  importance.  A  super- 
intendent should  be  as  conscientious  and  careful  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  ethical  obligations  to  the  pupils  in  his  school 
as  of  any  of  the  duties  of  his  office. 

Varied  relations  of  the  teacher.  It  has  been  shown  that 
the  community,  the  board  of  education,  and  the  superintend- 
ent of  the  school,  each  bears  a  distinct  relation  to  the  teacher. 
The  teacher  in  his  turn  sustains  an  ethical  relation  to  each 
of  them,  as  well  as  to  his  fellow- teachers  and  to  his  pupils; 
for  the  ethical  obligation  is  a  reciprocal  one.  When  a  person 
bears  an  ethical  relation  to  another  person  or  to  a  group  of 
persons,  they  in  turn  bear  a  similar  relation  to  him.    The 


28  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

existence  of  these  ethical  obligations  is  a  matter  which  many 
teachers  ignore  or  do  not  rightly  understand.  Some  even 
regard  their  relation  to  the  community  and  to  the  board  of 
education  as  merely  a  business  obligation,  and  their  attitude 
toward  their  pupils  is  rather  that  of  an  intellectual  over- 
seer than  of  a  friend  and  guide.  Because  the  teacher's 
position  brings  him  into  a  somewhat  close  relation  with 
various  individual  interests,  his  ethical  obhgations  are 
rather  complex;  and  for  this  reason,  he  must  exercise  the 
greater  care  that  none  of  them  be  forgotten  or  disregarded. 

Relation  of  teachers  to  parents.  The  teacher  bears  a 
special  relation  to  the  parents  of  the  pupils  under  his  care, 
for  it  is  these  parents  who  have  delegated  to  him  the  task  of 
instructing,  training,  and  directing  the  educational  develop- 
ment of  their  children.  The  teacher  must  remember  that 
this  responsibility  has  been  transferred  to  him  because  many 
parents  have  not  the  time,  the  ability,  or  the  needed  prepara- 
tion to  perform  the  task  themselves  and  must  look  to  some 
one  else  to  do  it  for  them.  For  this  reason,  if  he  fails  in  the 
discharge  of  this  important  duty,  the  children  will  not  have 
the  opportunity  to  gain  the  educational  equipment  for  life 
to  which  they  are  entitled.  The  parents,  in  their  turn,  be- 
cause of  the  nature  of  the  service  which  the  teacher  renders 
them,  should  be  sympathetic  and  ever  ready  to  assist  him  in 
his  task.  This  they  can  often  do  by  giving  such  help  and 
information  regarding  the  peculiar  physical  or  mental  condi- 
tion and  the  temperament  of  the  child  as  will  enable  the 
teacher  to  deal  intelligently  with  his  case. 

It  is  to  the  conviction  on  the  part  of  parents  that  the  prob- 
lem of  educating  the  young  can  be  handled  better  in  the 
school  than  anywhere  else  that  the  teacher  owes  his  position. 
This  places  a  particular  responsibility  upon  him  and  brings 
him  into  a  close  relation  with  parents.  The  nature  of  the 
confidence  reposed  in  him  should  lead  him  to  understand 


SCHOOL  ETinCS  29 

that  he  is  a  co-worker  with  the  parents,  and  that,  being  a 
co-worker,  he  should  be  united  with  them  in  purpose  and 
sympathy.  He  should,  therefore,  avoid  the  critical  attitude 
which  some  teachers  assume  toward  parents  by  trying  to  act 
in  harmony  with  them.  He  should  respect  their  point  of  view 
even  when  it  does  not  altogether  agree  with  his  own.  When 
parents  are  ignorant  upon  certain  points  or  when  they  do  not 
understand  the  policy  of  the  teacher  in  particular  cases,  the 
latter,  in  a  kindly  spirit,  should  endeavor  to  give  them  the 
necessary  information,  or  help  them  to  a  correct  understand- 
ing of  his  plan  and  motive.  Such  a  sympathetic  understand- 
ing between  parents  and  teachers  of  the  vital  interests  of 
the  children  will  make  them  in  reality  co-workers  in  the 
education  of  the  young. 

Another  matter  in  which  the  teacher  should  be  careful  to 
observe  his  ethical  relation  toward  the  parents  of  his  pupils  is 
in  his  utterances  and  comments  about  them.  He  should  bear 
in  mind  that  most  of  them  live  up  "  to  their  light "  as  nearly 
as  he  does  to  his  understanding  and  knowledge.  He  should 
recognize  the  fact,  also,  that  the  defects  which  he  may  ob- 
serve, in  their  education,  manners,  habits,  and  dress,  reflect 
their  early  training  and  the  community  conditions  which  sur- 
round them.  These  habits  and  conditions  cannot  be  im- 
proved by  unkind  or  thoughtless  comments  and  criticism. 
If  they  are  improved  by  the  efforts  of  the  teacher,  it  must  be 
by  sympathetic  and  tactful  devices  which  the  wise  teacher 
will  always  be  able  to  select  and  employ.  The  true  teacher, 
in  the  consciousness  that  his  position  as  guide  and  instructor 
of  the  young  is  a  most  responsible  one,  will  endeavor  to 
increase  his  eflSciency  and  perform  the  task  delegated  to 
him  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner  that  he  can.  To  this 
end,  he  will  discharge  not  only  his  routine  duties,  but  he 
will  carefully  and  conscientiously  observe  all  the  ethical 
obligations  toward  those  who  have  entrusted  him  with  this 


so  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

task,  that  by  so  doing  the  best  interests  of  the  children 
may  be  enhanced  and  the  ultimate  purpose  of  the  school 
realized. 

Relation  of  the  teacher  to  the  board  of  education.  The 
ethics  of  the  teaching  profession  requires  that  the  teacher's 
attitude  toward  the  board  of  education  be  respectful,  and  be 
actuated  by  sentiments  of  good-will  and  confidence.  These 
men  give  much  valuable  time,  frequently  without  remunera- 
tion, because  they  are  interested  in  procuring  and  maintain- 
ing the  best  possible  conditions  for  the  children  of  their  com- 
munity. They  have  the  best  interests  of  the  school  at  heart 
and  are  anxious  to  do,  so  far  as  their  ability  and  the  means 
within  their  power  will  permit,  what  is  for  the  advancement 
of  the  educational  conditions  as  they  understand  them.  If, 
in  the  discharge  of  their  duties,  they  may  sometimes  adopt 
methods  that  are  not  approved  by  a  teacher,  the  latter  should 
exercise  the  same  charity  with  regard  to  the  matter  that  he 
desires  to  have  shown  toward  his  own  methods  when  they 
are  not  approved  or  understood  by  others.  Above  all,  he 
should  not  discuss  or  criticize  the  poUcy  of  the  school  board 
in  such  a  way  as  to  reflect  upon  the  integrity  of  the  latter  or 
to  interfere  with  the  interests  of  the  school.  When  from  lack 
of  information  or  misunderstanding  a  member  of  the  board 
may  be  indifferent  or  actually  opposed  to  something  desired 
by  a  teacher,  the  latter,  by  presenting  the  matter  privately 
to  the  dissenting  member,  should  endeavor  to  show  him  the 
educational  value  of  the  thing  wanted.  Naturally  this  last 
case  could  apply  only  to  a  small  system  where  the  teacher 
comes  into  direct  relation  with  the  board  of  education. 

Relation  of  teachers  to  the  superintendent.  The  relation 
between  the  teacher  and  his  superintendent  and  supervisors 
should  be  cordial  and  sympathetic.  The  attitude  of  the 
teacher  toward  his  supervisors,  like  his  attitude  toward  the 
board  of  education,  should  be  governed  by  a  desire  to  be 


SCHOOL  ETHICS  81 

true  to  the  ethical  obligations  which  grow  out  of  their  com- 
mon relation  to  the  same  task,  that  of  educating  the  young. 
It  is  therefore  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  carry  out  so  far  as 
possible  the  educational  purposes  and  desires  of  those  who 
plan  the  work  and  prescribe  the  methods  to  be  employed  in 
the  individual  school  or  classroom.  It  is  evident  that,  if  the 
machinery  of  the  school  is  to  run  smoothly,  there  must  be  no 
friction  among  the  persons  who  compose  the  various  parts 
of  it.  One  of  the  necessary  requirements  for  securing  and 
maintaining  this  condition  is  that  teachers  at  all  times  re- 
spect and  observe  the  ethics  of  the  profession  toward  their 
superintendent  and  supervisors.  The  theory  of  this  phase 
of  the  teacher's  duty  is  clear  and  usually  well  understood; 
but  in  far  too  many  cases  the  practice  is  not  in  proportion  to 
its  importance.  The  failure  on  the  part  of  teachers  in  this 
vital  matter  has  been  caused  in  some  measure  by  the  atti- 
tude and  practice  of  superintendents  who  consciously  or 
unconsciously  have  assumed  an  air  of  superiority.  In  the 
majority  of  instances,  however,  it  has  been  caused  by  the 
antagonistic  attitude  of  teachers  toward  their  official  su- 
periors and  their  unfortunate  habit  of  criticizing  all  those 
in  authority. 

The  superintendent  is  not,  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of 
the  term,  superior  to  those  who  serve  under  him,  nor  should 
he  so  consider  himself.  In  many  instances  he  does  not  know 
more  about  the  work  prescribed  for  a  certain  teacher  than 
the  teacher  does  himself,  nor  does  he  claim  to  be  infallible 
in  matters  of  method.  If  teachers  more  generally  under- 
stood this  fact  and  were  acquainted  with  the  superintend- 
ent's true  feeling  upon  the  subject,  they  would  not  be  so 
often  guilty  of  unprofessional  acts  and  utterances.  When 
teachers  do  reach  a  correct  understanding  of  the  attitude  of 
the  conscientious  superintendent  or  supervisor  toward  them 
and  their  work,  they  will  assume  a  sympathetic  and  helpful 


S2  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACfflNG 

attitude  and  be  anxious  to  work  in  harmony  with  the 
general  plan. 

Teachers  must  rise  to  a  high  plane  of  thinking  in  order  to 
gain  more  correct  estimate  of  values.  When  they  do  this, 
they  will  discover  how  trivial  and  unimportant,  oftentimes, 
are  the  things  which  they  have  allowed  to  influence  them  and 
to  overshadow  really  important  matters.  Teachers  must 
learn  to  place  their  profession  and  their  work  above  their 
own  personal  point  of  view,  their  personal  feelings  and  con- 
veniences. Those  who  have  studied  the  subject  of  the  atti- 
tude of  the  teacher  toward  his  supervisors  are  all  agreed 
that  the  persons  who  are  the  most  frequent  violators  of  this 
ethical  obligation  are  the  ones,  who,  from  lack  of  training 
or  want  of  effort,  have  not  been  entirely  successful  in  their 
work  and  are  not  constructive,  progressive  teachers.  Truly 
professional  teachers,  the  ones  who  have  the  heart  and  the 
mind  of  the  real  educator,  are  careful  to  observe  the  ethics 
of  the  profession  toward  all  persons  associated  with  them  in 
the  important  task  of  instructing  the  young. 

Ethical  relations  of  teachers  to  one  another.  Among  the 
various  relations  which  the  teacher  must  sustain  properly  is 
that  to  his  fellow-teachers.  Unfortunately,  a  large  number 
of  persons  occupying  the  position  of  teachers  do  not  rightly 
understand  this  relation  and  its  obligations.  Ethical  princi- 
ples as  applied  to  strictly  professional  matters  are  usually 
carefully  observed  in  all  other  professions,  and  should  be  in 
the  profession  of  teaching  also.  In  the  so-called  learned  pro- 
fessions, lack  of  ability  on  the  part  of  co-workers  and  even 
known  mistakes  are  not  made  the  subject  of  critical  com- 
ment, nor  are  they  revealed  to  the  world. 

Many  teachers  have  not  yet  caught  the  idea  that  there  are 
ethical  laws  that  should  be  as  binding  upon  them  as  the 
ethical  laws  of  other  professions  are  uj)on  their  members. 
Esi)ecially  are  they  often  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  these  ethi- 


SCHOOL  ETHICS  SS 

cal  laws  place  upon  them  certain  definite  obligations  toward 
their  fellow-teachers.  As  a  result  of  this  ignorance  they  often 
fail  to  work  together  in  sympathy  and  harmony,  and  in 
some  cases  even  show  a  great  readiness  to  proclaim  to  other 
persons  a  defect  which  they  have  discovered  in  a  co-worker. 
The  unprofessional  busybody  finds  fruitful  topics  for  gossip 
in  such  matters  as  the  personal  appearance  of  his  fellow- 
teachers,  their  education,  mistakes  in  discipline,  or  fail- 
ures in  teaching.  From  these  he  gathers  seeds,  made  light 
by  the  winds  of  envy  and  suspicion,  and  scatters  them 
broadcast  throughout  the  community.  When  we  consider 
the  unprofessional  carelessness,  and  sometimes  even  mali- 
ciousness, of  the  remarks  which  many  teachers  make  about 
one  another,  we  can  readily  understand  why  some  people 
doubt  whether  or  not  teaching  is  a  profession.  Teachers 
should  represent  in  their  lives  and  work  the  results  of  the 
best  moral  training.  The  fact  that  they  are  teachers  gives  the 
world  the  right  to  expect  exemplary  conduct  on  their  part 
and  the  proper  ethical  attitude  toward  their  co-workers.  The 
teacher  who  disregards  this  obligation  cannot  hope  to  main- 
tain a  professional  standing.  When  teachers  more  generally 
understand  this  fact,  less  thoughtless  criticism  of  one 
another  will  be  heard;  for  they  will  be  found  working  to- 
gether more  in  harmony  in  a  truly  professional  spirit  for  the 
attainment  of  right  results. 

The  maintenance  of  proper  relations  among  teachers  is  a 
matter  of  so  much  importance,  and  violations  of  the  eth- 
ical obligations  are  so  frequent,  that  it  seems  desirable  fur- 
ther to  emphasize  the  matter  by  calling  attention  to  a  few 
examples  of  the  more  common  of  these  violations.  As  an 
illustration  of  a  far  too  frequent  violation  of  this  ethical 
relation,  a  case  is  given  which  will  doubtless  recall  many 
similar  ones  to  the  mind  of  the  reader.  A  seventh-grade 
teacher  who  had  received  a  sixth-grade  class  at  the  be- 


34  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

ginning  of  the  school  year  gave  a  test  to  determine  whether, 
according  to  her  standards,  the  class  was  ready  for  the 
seventh  grade.  Judged  by  the  answers  to  the  question^! 
which  she  gave  them,  they  did  not  meet  the  test  satis 
factorily.  She  at  once  began  openly  to  criticize  and  dis 
credit  the  former  teacher  of  the  class.  In  so  doing  she  did 
not  take  into  account  the  fact  that  the  pupils  had  been 
regularly  promoted  after  a  capable  principal  had  decided 
upon  their  fitness  for  promotion,  and  after  they  had  com- 
pleted the  work  prescribed  by  an  intelligent  and  efficient 
superintendent.  In  her  thoughtless  ignorance,  and  because 
of  her  acquired  habit  of  criticizing  others,  she  seemingly  tried 
to  extol  herself  as  a  teacher  by  depreciating  another.  It 
need  hardly  be  said  that  a  person  who  is  guilty  of  such  vio- 
lation of  the  ethics  of  the  profession  is  not  a  suitable  person 
to  assume  the  position  of  teacher  and  become  the  moral  and 
intellectual  guide  of  the  young. 

Another  case  which  illustrates  a  not  uncommon  disregard 
of  the  ethical  relation  among  teachers  is  that  of  two  women 
whose  jealousy  and  ill-will  were  carried  to  extreme  lengths. 
One  of  them  became  vexed  because  a  pupil  spoke  in  praise  of 
a  former  teacher  and  reproved  him  for  so  doing.  This  so  in- 
censed the  child  that  he  went  to  the  other  teacher  and  re- 
peated what  had  been  said.  As  a  result  the  latter  became  so 
angry  that  she  expressed  herself  freely  regarding  her  fellow- 
teacher;  and  thus  the  two  became  avowed  enemies.  For  four 
years  they  taught  in  adjoining  rooms,  met  in  the  halls  each 
day,  and  watched  their  classes  pass  out  of  the  building  by  the 
same  door;  and  yet  they  never  exchanged  a  word.  Women  in 
their  position  should  have  been  superior  to  harboring  petty 
spite  and  jealousy,  and  their  regard  for  the  ethics  of  the  pro- 
fession should  have  prevented  their  display  of  ill-will.  Since 
they  acted  like  bad-tempered,  ill-bred  children,  they  should 
not  have  been  allowed  to  remain  in  the  same  school;  for  the 


SCHOOL  ETHICS  35 

influence  upon  other  persons  because  of  their  personal  feud 
was  exceedingly  harmful.  Examples  of  other  violations  of 
the  ethics  of  the  profession  in  the  relation  of  teachers  to  one 
another  might  be  given,  but  it  is  not  necessary.  Every 
reader  of  these  pages  can  recall  many  instances  of  the  un- 
ethical, unprofessional  attitude  of  teachers  toward  one 
another,  as  well  as  toward  other  persons  belonging  to  the 
same  profession  or  in  some  way  concerned  with  the  same 
work.  Such  conditions  should  not  exist.  The  truly  profes- 
sional teacher  is  one  who  has  the  heart  and  mind  of  the 
real  educator  and  is  always  careful  to  observe  the  ethics  of 
the  profession  toward  all  persons  associated  with  him  in  the 
important  task  of  instructing  the  young. 

The  teacher's  relation  to  his  pupils.  The  most  vital  and 
sacred  of  the  teacher's  ethical  obligations  is  that  to  his  pupils. 
Since  the  school  exists  for  the  benefit  of  the  child,  the  pro- 
fession of  teaching  sustains  a  peculiarly  responsible  relation 
toward  him.  The  expenditure  of  money  to  build,  equip,  and 
maintain  the  school  plant  is  solely  for  the  child's  benefit,  and 
the  teacher  is  employed  for  the  instruction  of  the  child.  Yet, 
if  we  may  judge  from  comments  often  heard,  there  are  many 
persons  who  think  that  the  child  exists  for  the  school,  the 
teacher,  and  the  course  of  study.  These  persons  seem  to  have 
the  idea  that  in  some  way  the  child  should  be  made  to  fit  the 
school  and  the  curriculum,  rather  than  that  these  should 
be  made  to  fit  his  needs  and  interests. 

Many  teachers  fail  to  get  a  correct  understanding  of  their 
relation  to  their  pupils  and  do  not  seem  to  know  that  it  if 
their  duty  to  do  all  in  their  power  to  conserve  the  pupil's 
best  interests.  As  a  result,  their  attitude  toward  his  mis- 
takes and  faults  is  often  such  as  to  aggravate  and  increase 
them,  rather  than  to  correct  and  lessen  them.  If  the  boy  is 
"  bad,"  the  teacher  in  far  too  many  instances  becomes  the 
medium  through  which  the  neighborhood  or  district  learns 


86  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACfflNG 

of  it.  If  a  girl  is  slow  or  dull,  the  fact  often  becomes  known 
by  the  same  means.  Such  advertising  of  the  faults  of  his 
pupils  is  in  direct  violation  of  the  most  sacred  obligation 
of  the  teacher  to  his  pupils,  and  is  like  a  doctor's  revealing 
facts  about  his  patients,  or  a  priest's  disclosing  the  secrets 
of  the  confessional.  As  the  doctor  and  the  priest  feel  it  their 
duty  to  guard  from  a  curious  public  the  physical  ailments 
of  their  patients  in  the  one  case,  and  the  moral  defects  and 
mistakes  of  their  parishioners  in  the  other,  so  the  teacher 
should  guard  from  an  uninterested  and  unsympathetic  com- 
munity the  mental  defects  and  moral  mistakes  of  his  pupils. 

Many  teachers,  and  the  number  is  constantly  increasing, 
recognize  the  fact  that  thoughtless  gossip  about  their  pupils 
and  the  exposure  of  the  mistakes  and  weaknesses  of  those 
under  their  instruction  and  guidance  is  not  only  unkind  and 
harmful,  but  unprofessional.  This  is  the  encouraging  aspect 
of  the  matter,  and  it  leads  to  the  belief  that  in  time  such 
harmful  and  unprofessional  gossip  as  here  mentioned  will 
rarely,  if  ever,  be  heard  from  members  of  the  teaching 
profession.  Until  this  condition  becomes  more  general, 
however,  there  will  be  persons  occupying  the  position  of  in- 
structors of  the  young  who  are  not  teachers  in  the  educa- 
tional and  professional  sense  of  the  term,  but  merely  in  its 
"  job  "  meaning  and  use.  For  this  reason,  it  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  the  name  "  teacher  "  is  applied  indiscriminately 
to  all  persons  who  "  keep  school  "  and  "  hear  recitations  "; 
for  in  its  true  sense  it  is  one  of  the  finest  names  that  can  be 
applied  to  any  worker.  To  be  a  real  teacher  means  to  be- 
long to  one  of  the  noblest  professions  which  society  has 
established;  but  merely  to  "  keep  school  "  without  true 
professional  qualities,  and  without  the  correct  attitude 
toward  the  work,  is  to  be  a  "  quack." 

A  quack  in  medicine  is  generally  ignorant.  He  has  not 
made  the  necessary  preparation  for  the  practice  of  the  pro- 


SCHOOL  ETHICS  37 

fession,  and  is  not  regarded  as  belonging  to  it.  He  is  not 
qualified  to  diagnose  a  case  correctly,  or  to  prescribe  the 
proper  remedies.  For  this  reason  he  would  be  an  actual 
menace  to  human  life  if  he  were  allowed  to  practice  the 
profession.  Fortunately,  the  quack  has  no  standing  in  the 
medical  profession,  and  he  is  not  allowed  to  practice  as  a 
regularly  qualified  physician.  Hence  his  opportunities  for 
doing  positive  harm  are  limited.  This  should  be  the  case 
with  quacks  in  all  professions  —  in  that  of  teaching  as  well 
as  in  the  so-called  learned  professions.  If  it  were,  there 
would  not  be  found  in  the  schoolrooms  to-day,  occupying 
the  position  of  teachers,  so  many  persons  who  are  unable  to 
diagnose  the  pupil's  case  correctly,  or  to  prescribe  the  proper 
treatment  for  his  particular  need.  The  harm  which  quack 
teachers  do  is  often  not  merely  negative,  but  positive;  for, 
in  their  ignorance,  like  the  quack  doctor,  they  often  com- 
mit blunders  to  the  lasting  injury  of  the  victim.  A  few 
illustrations  will  show  how  serious  the  results  of  such  blun- 
ders frequently  are. 

Dr.  Hinsdale  and  the  quack  teacher.  The  great  thinker 
and  educator.  Dr.  Hinsdale,  related  an  experience  of  the 
kind  which  he,  when  a  boy,  had  with  one  of  his  teachers. 
Dr.  Hinsdale  said :  "  When  a  child,  I  did  not  memorize 
readily,  but  always  had  to  think  a  thing  through.  This  often 
took  time,  and  as  a  result  I  frequently  failed  to  answer  as 
quickly  as  the  other  pupils  in  the  class.  Before  I  had  been 
long  in  school,  the  teacher  told  me  that  I  was  slow  and  dull. 
Finally  she  went  so  far  as  to  declare  that  I  was  stupid.  This 
was  said  in  the  presence  of  my  fellow-pupils,  and  naturally 
they  accepted  what  was  said  as  true.  The  teacher's  report 
to  my  parents  caused  them  also  to  believe  that  I  was  dull. 
Soon  the  entire  district  had  been  given  this  opinion  of  me. 
Words  fail  to  express  the  agony  which  all  this  caused  me. 
I  can  recall  even  now,  after  the  lapse  of  many  years,  the 


S8  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

humiliation  and  heartache  with  which  I  noted  the  smiles  of 
my  schoolmates,  or  their  exchange  of  glances  at  the  teacher's 
oft-repeated  charge  against  me  of  dullness  and  stupidity. 
That  teacher  did  me  a  great  injury  which  it  has  taken 
years  to  correct." 

As  he  finished  speaking,  tears  ran  down  the  cheeks  of  the 
great  educator  at  the  unhappy  memory  of  this  early  injus- 
tice. That  teacher  "  did  not  know  her  business."  She  did 
not  diagnose  the  pupil's  case  properly;  and  therefore  her 
treatment  of  it  was  wrong.  Similarly,  many  teachers,  by 
their  ignorant  judgment  of  the  conditions  and  needs  of  their 
pupils,  fail  in  their  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  individual 
cases  and  sometimes  even  inflict  injuries  which  it  takes  years 
to  remedy.  In  some  instances  the  harmful  influence  is  never 
entirely  eradicated. 

Thoughtless  cruelty  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Another 
ignorant  and  thoughtless  teacher  once  made  the  school  life 
of  one  of  her  pupils  wretched  by  ridiculing  the  business  of 
the  child's  father  and  speaking  as  if  the  mother,  and  even  the 
child  himself,  were  a  party  to  this  business.  In  her  remarks 
upon  the  subject,  she  made  use  of  a  name  sometimes  given 
to  the  business  in  question,  which  the  thoughtless  school- 
mates of  the  boy  immediately  began  to  apply  to  him.  The 
innocent  victim  was  caused  so  much  humiliation  and  shame 
by  this  frequent  allusion  to  his  father's  occupation  that  he 
was  finally  unable  to  endure  the  torture  of  their  taunts,  and 
he  left  school.  He  was  actually  driven  from  the  school  by 
the  thoughtless  teasing  of  his  fellows,  but  it  was  the  teacher 
who  was  responsible  for  the  condition.  In  her  zeal  for  a 
t^rtain  end,  namely,  to  create  a  sentiment  against  an  illegal 
traffic,  a  purpose  worthy  in  itself,  she  had  lost  sight  of  the 
fact  that  it  was  her  duty  to  teach  morals  in  such  a  way 
as  to  benefit  all  of  her  pupils  without  causing  unhappiness 
or  injury  to  any  one  of  them. 


SCHOOL  ETHICS  89 

Another  example  of  thoughtless  cruelty  on  the  part  of  a 
teacher  is  the  case  of  one  who  charged  a  pupil  with  stealing 
her  watch,  because  he  had  fallen  into  the  trap  of  taking  a 
marked  penny  that  she  had  placed  in  a  tempting  position. 
The  child  protested  his  innocence  throughout  the  third 
degree  examination  to  which  he  was  subjected;  but  the 
teacher  refused  to  believe  him.  Basing  her  conviction  of  his 
guilt  on  the  circumstantial  evidence  of  his  having  taken  the 
penny,  she  continued  to  reiterate  the  charge  of  the  theft  of 
the  watch  in  the  presence  of  the  school,  and  even  openly 
reported  the  matter  outside.  A  short  time  after,  the  child 
became  ill  with  diphtheria  during  an  epidemic  of  that  dread 
malady,  and  died  a  few  days  later.  During  his  illness  he  fre- 
quently repeated  his  protest  of  innocence,  and  his  last  words, 
uttered  slowly  and  painfully,  were,  "  Mamma,  I  did  n't  steal 
Miss  White's  watch."  Some  time  after,  the  watch  was  found 
under  some  papers  in  the  teacher's  desk  where  it  had  slipped 
out  of  sight  and  remained  hidden  until  a  clearing-out  of  the 
desk  revealed  its  presence. 

Any  one  familiar  with  the  everyday  incidents  in  large 
school  systems,  and  even  in  small  ones,  could  relate  similar 
incidents  in  illustration  of  the  injustice  and  often  the  pain 
which  children  are  forced  to  suffer  through  the  thoughtless 
utterances  and  charges  of  teachers  who  are  ignorant  or  care- 
less in  their  diagnosis  of  individual  cases,  and  of  the  condi- 
tions and  needs  of  their  pupils  in  general.  The  teacher's 
work  should  be  constructive,  not  destructive;  a  building-up 
rather  than  a  tearing-down  process.  The  material  with 
which  he  deals  is  neither  old,  tough,  inflexible  timber,  nor 
worn-out  fabric.  It  is  young,  growing,  plastic,  and  vital. 
School  work  should  not  be  merely  formal  academic  instruc- 
tion of  a  certain  body  of  knowledge;  it  should  be  made  living 
and  vital.  School  work  must  be  academic,  it  is  true,  but  it 
should  be  something  more.   Its  purpose  is  to  fit  for  life,  to 


40  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACfflNG 

build  and  develop  character,  not  to  dwarf  and  cripple  the 
right  development  of  character  and  the  real  expression  of 
the  self.  A  teacher  does  not  aid  a  child  in  true  character- 
building  or  help  him  to  correct  his  fault  by  humiliating  him 
in  the  presence  of  his  fellows  through  a  reminder  of  it,  nor 
by  scattering  throughout  the  community  undesirable  infor- 
mation about  his  defects  and  mistakes.  On  the  contrary, 
such  methods  often  increase  the  faults  and  deficiencies,  and 
sometimes  even  blast  the  life  of  the  unfortunate  victim  of 
such  a  misunderstanding  of  his  needs  and  the  improper 
treatment  of  his  case. 

Conclusion.  To  sum  up  briefly,  the  importance  of  the 
teacher's  intelligent  and  conscientious  observance  of  all  his 
varied  ethical  obligations  cannot  be  overestimated.  With- 
out due  regard  to  these,  he  need  not  hope  to  succeed  in  his 
work,  no  matter  how  thorough  his  academic  preparation 
may  have  been,  and  no  matter  how  vigorously  he  endeavors 
to  encourage  or  compel  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  on  the 
part  of  his  pupils.  His  work  as  a  teacher,  as  an  instructor  and 
guide  of  the  young,  will  be  a  dismal  failure,  unless  his  under- 
standing of  the  profession  of  which  he  calls  himself  a  member 
leads  him  to  assume  and  maintain  aright  his  various  relations 
to  all  those  persons  with  whom  he  cooperates  in  the  educa- 
tion of  the  young.  In  addition  to  an  intellectual  under- 
standing of  his  obligations  and  responsibilities,  the  teacher 
must  approach  his  work  in  the  right  spirit.  In  other  words, 
he  must  be  so  filled  with  love  for  those  committed  to  his  care, 
so  interested  in  their  highest  good,  and  so  impressed  with 
the  importance  and  sacredness  of  the  charge  intrusted  to 
him  that  his  attitude  toward  those  who  have  delegated  the 
task  to  him  and  to  those  with  whom  he  works,  will  be  one  of 
sympathy  and  love,  rather  than  of  criticism  and  defense. 
Then  he  will  regard  the  board  of  education,  the  parents,  and 
his  fellow-teachers  as  co-workers  instead  of  as  antagonists 


SCHOOL  ETHICS  41 

against  whom  he  must  be  on  his  guard,  and  his  pupils,  not  as 
"  little  imps  "  to  be  watched,  threatened,  and  tamed,  but  as 
human  beings  to  be  lovingly  trained  for  effective  service  in 
the  community  and  national  life  of  which  they  must  soon 
become  a  part.  When  teachers  do  more  generally  enter 
upon  their  work  in  this  spirit,  then  the  workers  in  this  noble 
profession  will  aspire  to  and  attain  the  full  measure  of  its 
requirements  and  dignity,  and  will  be  in  possession  of  the 
true  joys  such  service  yields. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

School  and  Classroom  Management,  Arnold,  pp.  36-55. 
Classroom  Management,  Bagley,  chaps,  xvii,  xviii. 
School  Management,  Dutton,  chap.  xix. 
The  Management  of  the  City  School,  Perry,  chaps,  in,  iv,  V. 
All  the  Children  of  All  the  People,  Smith,  pp.  251-61. 

EXERCISES 

1.  To  what  institutions  or  organizations  do  you  hold  an  ethical  relation? 
Select  one  and  name  at  least  five  rules  of  conduct  it  requires  of  its 
members.  Consider  whether  you  observe  the  obligations  imposed 
by  each. 

2.  Name  some  conventional  ethics  of  the  street  that  people  generally 
observe.  Consider  whether  a  careful  observance  of  street  ethics  in- 
creases or  decreases  one's  real  freedom.  Mention  some  ways  in 
which  such  observance  adds  to  one's  convenience. 

3.  Do  you  think  that  parents  generally  realize  their  obligations  to  the 
teacher?  Name  some  of  the  ethical  relations  of  parents  toward  the 
teacher  that  should  be  carefully  observed.  Of  teachers  toward  the 
parents. 

4.  Name  some  violations  of  the  ethical  relations  by  superintendents, 
by  boards  of  education,  by  teachers,  and  by  pupils,  and  show  how 
the  school  may  be  injured  by  them. 

6.  Name  at  least  five  rules  which  pupils  should  observe  in  their  relations 
with  one  another.  Name  five  rules  that  govern  the  relations  of 
teachers  with  one  another.  Name  five  rules  that  should  govern  the 
relation  of  a  pupil  to  his  teacher,  of  the  teacher  to  the  pupil. 

6.  Name  some  ethical  practices  that  would  be  corrected  if  the  Golden 
Rule  determined  the  conduct  of  people.  Consider  whether  business 
relations  could  be  regulated  by  this  rule. 


42  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

7.  Does  the  expression,  "An  eye  for  an  eye,  a  tooth  for  a  tooth,"  repre- 
sent a  good  system  of  ethics?  Does  the  New  Testament  advocate  the 
doctrine  implied  in  this  expression? 

8.  Write  out  a  few  ethical  rules  under  each  relation  discussed  in  this 
chapter. 

9.  Think  of  the  most  useful  person  you  know  and  consider  whether 
he  is  an  observer  of  ethical  laws.  State  some  facts  about  him  to  justify 
your  opinion  of  him. 

10.  There  are  two  great  sources  of  fundamental  ethics.  They  are  the 
ten  commandments,  and  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  First  Corinthians. 
Read  these  and  make  a  list  of  the  things  they  suggest  to  do,  and  of 
the  things  not  to  do. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  ULTIMATE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION 

Educating  forces.  In  the  education  of  every  ciiild  there 
are  many  forces  and  influences  at  work.  These  act  and  react 
upon  him  to  prepare  him  for  his  adult  place  in  the  various 
social  and  civic  organizations  of  modern  life.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  forces  are  the  home,  the  school,  the  church, 
and  the  community.  There  are  also  secondary  influences 
which  exert  more  or  less  power  over  the  child's  development 
and  growth,  according  to  the  degree  that  he  comes  into  con- 
tact with  them.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  compan- 
ions, books,  amusements,  travel,  and  the  conditions  in  his 
environment.  If  the  combined  working  of  all  these  influences 
upon  the  human  being  is  to  result  in  his  complete  develop- 
ment, physical,  mental,  and  moral,  then  the  child  should  be, 
as  far  as  possible,  surrounded  with  proper  forces  and  influ- 
ences; and  in  order  that  there  may  be  the  desired  results 
in  his  growth  and  development,  these  influences  should 
be  directed  with  definiteness  and  persistency.  To  the  end 
that  these  forces  may  be  so  directed,  two  things  are  nec- 
essary. First,  those  persons  concerned  with  the  education 
of  the  child  should  understand  the  purpose  of  education  in 
general;  and  second,  they  should  be  able  to  determine  the 
specific  purpose  to  be  attained  in  the  education  of  the  hu- 
man beings  committed  to  their  care. 

The  term  "  education  "  explained.  It  will  be  apparent 
that  the  term  "  education,"  as  here  used,  is  not  limited  to 
the  instruction  and  training  which  the  child  receives  in 
school,  but  is  intended  to  include  the  entire  preparation 


44  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

which  he  receives  for  Ufe.  This  education  or  preparation  for 
life,  in  order  to  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  individual,  should 
enable  him  to  react  in  the  right  way  in  all  the  situations  in  which 
he  may  be  placed.  A  glance  at  the  kind  of  influences  that  have 
a  part  in  a  person's  education  will  convince  one  that  this 
preparation  for  life  begins  at  a  very  early  age,  and  goes  on 
continuously,  either  with  or  without  the  knowledge  and 
consent  of  the  individual.  To  quote  Dr.  Thorndike:  "No 
clear  boundary  separates  man's  education  from  the  rest  of 
his  life.  In  the  broadest  sense  his  education  is  his  life." 
Hence,  environment,  associates,  and  every  chance  influence 
which  enters  into  the  life  of  the  child,  as  well  as  the  generally 
recognized  educational  forces,  have  a  part  in  this  life  prepa- 
ration. It  follows,  therefore,  first,  that  education  as  a  proc- 
ess unites  all  the  developing  and  directing  influences  that 
enter  into  the  life  of  the  individual;  and  second,  that  educa- 
tion as  an  end  is  the  resultant  of  the  combined  working  of 
these  forces.  The  character  of  the  education  or  life  prepa- 
ration which  will  result  from  this  blending  of  the  many 
and  varied  influences  will  depend  upon  the  nature  and 
character  of  the  dominant  ones. 

The  aim  of  education  stated  by  various  educators.  The 
distinct  and  ultimate  aim  of  education  has  been  variously 
stated  by  many  educators  and  philosophers.  An  examina- 
tion of  some  of  the  best  known  and  most  frequently  quoted 
of  these  aims  will  be  interesting  and  instructive  as  showing 
the  standards  of  value  by  which  these  men  measure  the 
results  of  the  educational  process. 

Plato,  the  Greek  philosopher,  long  ago  wrote:  — 

The  purpose  of  education  is  to  give  to  the  body  and  to  the  soul 
all  the  beauty  and  all  the  perfection  of  which  they  are  capable. 

John  Milton,  out  of  his  study  and  experience  as  a  scjiool- 
master,  when  discussing  education,  said:  — 


THE  ULTIMATE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  45 

The  end  of  learning  is  to  repair  the  ruins  of  our  first  parents  by 
regaining  to  know  God  aright,  and  out  of  that  knowledge  to  love 
Him,  to  imitate  Him,  to  be  like  Him,  as  we  may  the  nearest  by 
possessing  our  souls  of  true  virtue,  which  being  united  to  the 
heavenly  grace  of  faith,  makes  up  the  highest  perfection. 

Froebel,  the  educational  reformer  and  the  founder  of  the 
kindergarten,  in  his  work  The  Education  of  Man,  states  the 
purpose  of  education  as  "  the  realization  of  a  faithful,  pure, 
inviolate,  and  hence  holy  life." 

Herbert  Spencer,  the  English  educational  philosopher,  in 
his  treatise  on  Education,  says,  "  Education  is  the  prepara- 
tion for  complete  living."  This  he  further  explains  as  mean- 
ing:— 

Not  merely  how  to  live  in  the  material  sense  only,  but  in  the 
widest  sense,  .  .  .  the  right  ruling  of  conduct  in  all  directions  and 
under  all  circumstances.  In  what  way  to  treat  the  body;  in  what 
way  to  treat  the  mind;  in  what  way  to  manage  our  affairs;  in 
what  way  to  bring  up  a  family;  in  what  way  to  behave  as  citizens; 
in  what  way  to  utilize  all  those  sources  of  happiness  which  nature 
supplies;  how  to  use  all  our  faculties  to  the  greatest  advantage 
of  ourselves  and  others. 

American  educators  of  the  present  day  use  various  phrases 
in  stating  the  same  general  aim  as  defined  by  the  great  phi- 
losophers and  educators  of  different  periods  and  different 
nations.  Dr.  McMurry  defines  the  aim  of  education  as  "  a 
preparation  for  social  efficiency."  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  states 
it  more  at  length  as  "  the  preparation  of  the  individual,  so 
that  he  can  help  his  fellow-men,  and  in  return  receive  and 
appropriate  their  help."  Dr.  O'Shea  expresses  his  con- 
ception of  the  aim  of  education  as  "  right  adjustment  to 
society." 

Character,  the  ultimate  aim  of  education.  After  a  careful 
consideration  of  these  and  other  statements  of  the  broad  aim 
of  education,  one  cannot  fail  to  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that 
all  have  the  same  general  idea  of  its  meaning  and  purpose. 


46  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

although  they  each  stress  some  particular  phase  or  phases 
of  this  great  complex  aim.  An  examination  of  the  various 
phases  of  this  great  aim  as  presented  by  different  educators 
and  thinkers  convinces  one  that  about  the  most  satisfac^ 
tory  and  concise  statement  of  it  is  expressed  in  the  on^J 
word  "  character."  In  the  final  analysis,  all  these  defini- 
tions meet,  although  to  many  persons  a  somewhat  clearer 
or  more  concise  meaning  may  be  conveyed  by  the  phrases, 
"  self-realization,"  "  preparation  for  complete  living,"  "  ad- 
justment to  society,"  "  social  efficiency,"  "  reciprocal  union 
with  society,"  and  various  other  statements  of  the  aim  of 
education. 

If  character  or  character-building  is  the  ultimate  aim  of 
education,  then  there  must  be  much  more  included  in  the 
meaning  of  the  word  "  character  "  than  is  usually  under- 
stood by  the  term.  According  to  the  conception  of  many 
persons  the  word  "  character  "  is  used  only  as  applying  to 
the  moral  or  spiritual  nature  of  man.  In  this  narrow  sense,  it 
is  clear  that  it  could  not  include  all  the  elements  that  enter 
into  a  person's  education.  The  term  as  used  here  has  a  much 
broader  meaning;  for  character,  as  the  aim  of  education,  must 
include  all  the  elements  that  compose  or  make  up  a  desirable 
and  efficient  preparation  for  life.  It  follows,  therefore,  that 
the  greater  the  number  of  these  elements  that  enter  into  a 
person's  character,  the  more  complete  will  be  his  education. 

Broad  conception  of  character.  In  order  that  we  may  have 
a  working  or  talking  basis  upon  which  to  discuss  this  subject 
of  the  aim  of  education,  an  explanation  is  ventured  of  what 
is  here  embraced  in  the  term  "  character."  Character  in- 
cludes all  the  qualities  and  ideals,  both  good  and  bad,  that 
an  individual  expresses  or  presents  in  his  daily  life.  There- 
fore a  person  of  a  worthy  or  desirable  character  may  be  described 
as  one  who  represents  in  himself ,  and  expresses  in  his  life,  the 
best  ideals  of  the  civilization  of  which  he  is  a  part.  An  exiirai- 


THE  ULTIMATE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  47 

nation  of  this  statement  of  the  meaning  of  character  reveals 
the  fact  that  a  person's  character,  as  representing  the  best 
ideals  of  the  civilization  in  which  he  lives,  must  of  necessity 
vary  with  the  nature  of  the  civilization.  Hence,  what  if 
understood  by  a  good  or  a  desirable  character  is  not  the  samt 
among  all  peoples  and  in  all  ages.  For  example,  what  was 
considered  a  good  character  among  the  early  Greeks  or  Ro- 
mans, advanced  as  was  their  state  of  civilization,  would  not 
be  considered  adequate  to-day  for  the  reason  that  what  met 
the  highest  demands  of  the  civilization  of  those  peoples  and 
periods  would  not  meet  the  needs  of  the  civilization  of  the 
present  time.  Nor  are  the  requirements  of  the  civilization  of 
to-day  the  same  in  all  countries  and  among  all  nations.  The 
life  preparation  which  would  be  necessary  for  meeting  the 
demands  of  the  civiUzation  of  China  or  India,  for  instance, 
would  not  be  the  same  that  a  person  would  require  for  meet- 
ing those  of  England,  France,  and  many  other  countries. 

Those  persons  who  understand  character  only  as  limited 
to  the  moral  qualities  of  man,  think  of  it  as  being  absolute. 
They  suppose  that  what  is  termed  a  "  good  character  "  has 
been  essentially  the  same  in  all  ages  and  among  all  peoples, 
and  that  it  is  the  same  among  all  nations  at  the  present  time. 
This  is  not  the  case,  for  owing  to  the  changes  in  social  ideals, 
and  to  the  religious  conception  of  what  is  right  and  wrong, 
valuable  and  useless,  corresponding  changes  in  the  under- 
standing of  character  have  been  made  necessary.  Thus  it  is 
that  with  a  changing  and  developing  civiUzation  there  has 
evolved  a  more  complex  ideal  of  what  character  should  em- 
brace. Since  what  is  understood  to  constitute  a  good  char- 
acter depends  upon  the  ideals  of  the  civilization  in  which  one 
lives,  it  follows  that  what  might  be  considered  a  desirable 
character  in  one  civilization,  or  in  a  certain  country,  would 
not  necessarily  be  considered  a  desirable  character  in  some 
other. 


48  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

Character  ideals.  If  character  includes  the  best  ideals  of 
the  civilization,  then  these  ideals  cannot  be  limited  to  the 
moral  nature  of  man,  but  must  include  all  the  positive  and 
best  ideals  of  the  civilization  of  which  he  is  a  part.  In  order 
then  that  we  may  comprehend  what  is  embraced  in  the  term 
character,  and  what  it  signifies  at  the  present  time,  we  must 
know  the  ideals  of  the  civilization  in  our  own  country  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  It  must  be  remembered  that  since  different  per- 
sons do  not  have  exactly  the  same  conception  of  the  national 
ideals,  the  idea  or  understanding  of  character  must  be  rela- 
tive, rather  than  positive  or  absolute.  However,  there  is  a 
sufficient  number  of  these  ideals  that  are  generally  accepted, 
to  serve  as  a  basis  for  determining  what  is  meant  by  the 
term  character.  A  brief  discussion  of  the  more  important  of 
these  ideals  may  aid  in  the  understanding  of  character  as 
the  aim  of  education. 

Religious  ideals.  All  nations  have  religious  ideals  which 
determine  conduct  in  the  various  situations  in  which  moral 
questions  are  involved.  All  peoples  in  all  ages,  and  among 
all  nations,  have  held  some  form  of  religious  belief,  and  have 
had  some  form  of  worship  from  which  they  have  acquired 
their  moral  concepts  and  their  standards  of  character.  The 
religions  of  the  past  differed  in  their  creeds  and  forms  of  wor- 
ship; and  to  a  greater  degree,  the  religions  of  the  present  thus 
differ.  If,  however,  a  person  is  sincere  in  his  belief  in  the 
creed  of  the  particular  form  of  religion  which  he  has  adopted, 
and  is  conscientious  in  his  observance  of  the  obligations 
which  it  imposes,  he  may  be  said  to  be  true  to  his  religious 
ideals.  A  person  who  represented  in  his  own  life  and  conduct 
one  of  the  religions  of  the  past  at  its  best  was  a  good  man  in 
the  terms  of  the  civilization  in  which  he  lived;  but  in  many 
respects  he  might  not  be  considered  a  good  man  according 
to  the  standards  of  the  civilization  of  to-day.  A  study  of  the 
history  of  civilization  from  the  earliest  time  down  to  the  pres- 


THE   ULTIMATE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  49 

ent,  with  this  point  in  mind,  is  interesting  and  instructive 
as  revealing  the  changes  which  have  evolved  in  the  ideals 
and  standards  by  which  men  and  institutions  have  been 
evaluated.  It  will  also  reveal  the  fact  that  the  character  of 
the  religious  belief  and  practice  of  a  people  mirrors  to  a 
marked  degree  their  state  of  civilization.  In  order,  therefore, 
that  a  fair  and  just  estimate  of  a  man's  character  may  be 
made,  he  must  be  judged  by  the  civilization  of  which  he 
is  a  part,  and  not  by  that  of  some  other  period  or  nation. 
This  fact  is  worthy  of  note  and  should  be  remembered  in  any 
study  of  mankind  in  different  ages  and  in'  different  degrees 
of  civilization. 

According  to  the  standards  of  American  civilization  of  to- 
day, to  be  what  is  understood  as  a  good  man,  one  must  repre- 
sent in  his  life  the  best  religious  ideals  of  the  present  civiliza- 
tion in  our  own  country.  It  is  not  sufficient  for  him  merely  to 
know  what  these  ideals  are;  he  must  reflect  them  in  his  life. 
Although  from  the  very  nature  of  things  some  of  the  ele- 
ments of  this  present-day  ideal  are  not  constant  or  always 
present,  there  is  still  a  sufficient  number  of  them  so  firmly 
estabhshed  as  to  give  them  a  fixed  place  in  the  national  ideal. 
The  fundamental  principles  of  the  Christian  religion,  those 
that  are  the  foundation  of  our  religious  ideals,  are  practically 
universal  in  the  nation.  Principles  that  are  fundamental  can- 
not change,  although  the  conception  of  them  may  vary. 
These  basal  principles  are  known  by  all  intelligent  persons 
and  are  accepted,  regardless  of  difference  of  creed,  by  all  citi- 
zens who  desire  to  represent  in  their  lives  the  best  religious 
ideals  of  the  present. 

Ideal  of  home.  Throughout  this  land  of  ours  there  is  a 
fairly  well-established  ideal  of  the  home.  This  ideal,  natu- 
rally, is  composed  of  a  number  of  elements.  There  is,  first, 
the  material  side  which  includes  the  house,  the  grounds,  the 
house  furnishings,  the  location,  and  the  view.  There  is  also 


50  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

the  personal  side  which  consists  of  the  father,  the  mother, 
the  children,  and  such  other  members  of  the  family  as  each 
particular  home  may  contain.  Each  of  these  persons  must, 
in  a  general  way,  represent  a  certain  kind  of  training,  certain 
habits,  and  a  certain  kind  of  conduct  and  bearing.  All  of  these 
factors  combined,  both  material  and  personal,  go  to  make  up 
the  general  idea  of  what  constitutes  a  home;  and  it  should  be 
understood  that  any  deficiency  on  either  the  material  or  the 
personal  side  affects  the  quality  of  the  home.  Since  the  home 
has  become  so  important  a  factor  in  our  American  life,  a 
clear  conception  of  what  it  should  represent  cannot  be  too 
urgently  impressed  upon  all  who  wish  to  represent  in  their 
character  its  best  ideals. 

The  home  as  a  social  organization  was  instituted  primarily 
to  provide  proper  care  and  protection  for  the  helplessness  of 
childhood,  and  parents  are  the  natural  guardians  and  pro- 
tectors of  their  children.  The  fact  that  this  function  can  be 
managed  better  by  them  than  by  any  state  arrangement,  as 
was  the  case  in  ancient  Greece,  lies  at  the  foundation  of  the 
human  family,  and  therefore  of  society  and  of  institutional 
life  as  we  understand  them.  Thus  will  be  seen  the  impor- 
tance of  the  home  among  social  institutions,  and  the 
responsibilities  which  devolve  upon  it  in  caring  for  the 
physical,  mental,  and  moral  needs  of  its  members,  particu- 
larly the  young.  No  matter  how  well  organized,  or  how  fully 
equipped  a  community  may  be  for  looking  after  the  needs 
of  its  people,  it  must  depend  upon  the  home  for  the  founda- 
tional work,  not  alone  as  regards  the  physical  requirements 
of  its  members,  but  for  the  beginnings  in  mental  and  spiritual 
culture  and  in  the  inculcation  of  ideals.  From  this  it  will  be 
seen  how  important  it  is  that  a  person  should  represent  in 
his  home  relations  the  elements  that  make  up  the  true  and 
best  ideal  of  the  American  home. 

The  municipal  ideal.  We  have  in  our  country  at  the  pres- 


THE  ULTIMATE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  51 

ent  time  certain  well-defined  municipal  ideals.  Like  the  ideal 
of  the  home,  the  municipal  ideal  may  vary  somewhat  in 
different  sections  of  the  country  and  under  different  condi- 
tions; but  also,  like  the  ideal  of  the  home,  there  are  certain 
basal  elements  which  are  considered  essential  to  it,  and  are 
therefore  very  generally  accepted.  The  municipal  ideal  is 
also  composite  and  more  or  less  complex  in  its  character.  In 
general,  it  finds  its  material  expression  in  the  quality  of  the 
roads,  sidewalks,  public  buildings,  parks,  street-lighting, 
water-supply,  hygienic  conditions,  and  other  material  mu- 
nicipal interests.  Each  of  these  reflects  the  character  of  the 
administrative  department  in  a  given  community,  and  also 
the  standards  of  the  individual  community  in  civic  matters. 
It  is  true  that  the  highest  ideal  of  excellence  has  not  yet  been 
attained,  and  many  communities  fall  far  short  of  it,  but  this 
ideal  is  being  more  and  more  accepted  as  the  standard  by 
which  municipal  conditions  may  be  measured.  As  such,  it  is 
rapidly  becoming  one  of  our  national  ideals,  and  a  part  of  the 
national  character.  A  person  to  represent  in  himself  the  best 
in  community  life  must  understand  the  recognized  municipal 
ideals,  and  express  them  in  his  attitude  toward  all  questions 
that  are  concerned  with  community  w^elfare. 

Commercial  ideals.  In  the  business  world  of  to-day  there 
are  certain  definite  commercial  ideals  that  are  recognized 
in  practically  all  transactions,  small  as  well  as  large.  Among 
the  more  important  of  these  are  the  ideals  of  honesty,  truth- 
fulness, square  dealing,  and  the  like,  which  are  based  upon 
the  principles  that  govern  the  dealings  of  men  with  one 
another.  Therefore  these  ideals  are  universally  accepted  as 
the  standards  by  which  business  transactions  should  be  regu- 
lated, and  all  persons  must  recognize  and  attain  these  stand- 
ards if  they  wish  to  be  considered  honest  and  straightforward 
in  their  business  dealings.  In  no  other  way  can  they  secure 
and  maintain  the  respect  and  confidence  of  their  business 


52  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

associates  and  their  acquaintances  in  general.  It  is  unfor- 
tunate that,  notwithstanding  the  existence  of  these  fixed 
ideals  of  honesty  and  fair  dealing,  there  are  many  persons 
who  are  so  blinded  by  selfishness  and  greed  as  to  be  ignorant 
of  their  nature,  or  who  are  wholly  indifferent  to  their  binding 
obligations  upon  themselves.  This  fact,  however,  does  not 
affect  the  stability  of  the  correct  standards,  nor  the  obliga- 
tions which  they  impose  upon  all  persons  whose  conduct  is 
governed  by  sentiments  of  honesty  and  integrity,  or  upon 
those  who  wish  to  maintain  a  creditable  business  standing 
among  their  fellows.  Another  point  worthy  of  note  in  this 
connection  is  that  the  existence  of  these  fixed  commercial 
ideals  makes  it  possible  for  one  to  discover  or  single  out 
greedy,  dishonest,  and  unreliable  persons,  and  to  protect 
one's  self  against  their  disreputable  practices.  It  is  evident 
that  worthy  commercial  ideals  are  of  the  greatest  value  to 
the  community  and  the  nation,  as  well  as  to  the  individuals 
who  understand  and  express  them  in  their  own  business 
dealings.  Moreover,  the  recognition  and  maintenance  of  the 
underlying  principles  upon  which  these  ideals  are  based  are 
of  incalculable  value,  not  more  to  the  individual  than  to  the 
nation  which  wishes  to  secure  and  retain  a  reputation  for 
honesty  and  right  dealing  among  the  nations  of  the  world. 

Industrial  ideals.  Certain  positive  ideals  or  standards 
have  been  established  in  the  industrial  world,  and  it  is  these 
that  give  stability  of  character  to  this  important  phase  of 
our  national  activity.  Recognized  standards  of  excellence 
have  been  developed,  certain  quality  of  workmanship  has 
been  established,  right  rules  of  conduct  have  become  fixed,  a 
desirable  attitude  of  employer  and  employed  toward  each 
other  has  been  determined.  These  and  other  standards  have 
been  established  for  measuring  the  quality  and  efficiency  of 
the  industries,  and  for  regulating  the  relation  of  the  persons 
connected  with  them.  In  fact,  these  standards  have  been  so 


THE  ULTIMATE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  53 

firmly  wrought  into  our  national  ideals  that  they  have  be- 
come a  great  socializing  and  reforming  force  and  influence. 
They  have  become,  in  short,  an  integral  part  of  the  nation's 
character,  and  no  laborer  or  employer  of  labor  can  afford  to 
ignore  them  if  he  wishes  to  be  considered  a  worthy  repre- 
sentative of  the  industrial  world,  or  if  he  desires  to  add  to  the 
reputation  and  dignity  of  the  great  department  of  activity 
to  which  he  belongs.  What  has  been  said  with  regard  to  the 
standards  and  ideals  which  govern  the  relation  of  employer 
and  employee  in  the  industries  applies  with  equal  force  to  all 
vocations. 

Ideal  of  citizenship.  Americans  have  a  distinct  ideal  of 
citizenship,  and  of  the  qualities  required  by  a  person  to  make 
him  what  they  regard  as  an  ideal  citizen.  Like  every  other 
ideal,  this  ideal  of  what  constitutes  a  good  citizen  has  passed 
through  many  modifications  during  the  course  of  its  develop- 
ment, from  the  earliest  conception  of  man's  relation  to  his 
community  and  State  down  to  the  present  idea  of  his  duties 
and  privileges  in  this  great  democracy.  As  man  advanced  in 
intelligence  and  in  the  ability  to  assume  responsibility,  there 
was  placed  in  his  hands  sovereign  power,  and  sovereign  rights 
which  he  exercises  through  the  medium  of  the  ballot.  The 
intelligent  and  honest  use  of  this  power  is  regarded  as  one 
of  the  proofs  of  good  citizenship.  In  fact,  this  particular 
standard  for  citizenship  is  so  well  established  that  it  often 
affords  the  basis  or  standard  for  determining  whether  a  man 
is  or  is  not  a  good  citizen.  Therefore  a  man  who  fails  in  this 
test  is  at  once  known  to  be  deficient  in  some  of  the  essential 
elements  of  character. 

Great  importance  is  placed  upon  the  manner  in  which  a 
man  exercises  his  sovereign  right  for  the  reason  that  it  serves 
as  an  index  of  the  man  himself.  In  order  that  a  man  may  be 
able  to  exercise  this  high  privilege  of  citizenship  in  an  hon- 
est, intelligent,  and  conscientious  manner,  he  must  possess  in 


54  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

himself  many  of  the  fundamental  elements  of  true  man- 
hood. Such  a  man  will  usually  be  a  valuable  citizen  and  a 
true  patriot,  ready  and  eager  to  serve  either  his  local  com- 
munity or  his  nation  to  the  best  of  his  ability.  Moreover,  he 
will  be  governed  in  his  private  as  well  as  in  his  public  life 
and  conduct  by  good  impulses  and  high  ideals.  Too  much 
stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  every  person's 
acquiring  the  true  ideals  of  citizenship  if  he  ever  expects  to 
have  the  privilege  and  the  responsibility  of  properly  exercis- 
ing this  prerogative  in  our  great  commonwealth. 

Ideal  of  patriotism.  Another  national  ideal  somewhat  re- 
lated to  that  of  citizenship  is  the  feeling  for  our  country  as 
a  nation,  in  which  patriotic  pride  and  love  are  manifested. 
We  are  justly  proud  of  our  country,  of  her  magnitude,  of  her 
lofty  mountains  and  her  beautiful  valleys,  of  her  extensive 
plains  and  her  great  forests,  of  her  many  rivers  and  her  great 
lakes,  of  her  busy  mills  and  factories,  and  of  all  her  mate- 
rial greatness.  We  are  particularly  proud  of  her  homes,  her 
schools,  and  her  churches,  of  her  men  and  her  women,  of  her 
discoveries  and  inventions,  of  her  government  and  h^r  laws, 
of  her  watchfulness  over  the  interests  of  her  citizens,  and  of 
her  benign  and  Christian  influence  throughout  the  world. 
This  ideal  which  we  have  set  up  for  our  country  is  a  most 
significant  one,  for  it  is  the  expression  of  the  nation's  char- 
acter. As  the  character  of  the  nation  must  partake  largely 
of  the  character  of  its  citizens,  the  ideal  that  is  established 
for  a  nation  must  reflect  the  private  ideals  and  standards  of 
the  people  that  compose  the  nation.  To  be  of  value,  to  be 
really  standards  of  measure  determining  the  character  of  the 
people  and  of  the  nation,  these  ideals  must  not  be  mere  con- 
ceptions of  personal  and  national  worth;  but  they  must  be 
ideals  that  are  absolutely  real  in  life  and  practice. 

Ideals  of  manhood.  Finally,  as  a  people  we  have  a  definite 
and  high  standard  of  excellence  in  manhood  and  woman- 


THE  ULTIMATE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  55 

hood.  Owing  to  the  changes  in  the  standards  by  which  hu- 
man worth  is  estimated,  that  have  taken  place  with  the  ad- 
vancement of  civiUzation,  this  ideal  differs  greatly  at  the 
present  time  from  the  ideal  of  the  ancients.  If  we  were  to 
compare,  for  example,  the  early  Greek  and  Roman  ideals  of 
manhood,  we  should  find  that  they  differed  in  many  impor- 
tant features  from  those  of  to-day.  In  the  first  place,  we 
should  find  that  the  ideals  of  the  past  were  more  simple, 
owing  to  the  simpler  civilization  of  those  early  periods. 
Our  complex  society  with  its  varied  demands  has  naturally 
produced  a  more  complex  ideal  of  manhood;  and  to-day  a 
man  must  combine  in  his  character  more  of  the  elements 
that  make  for  true  manhood  than  was  necessary  in  an 
earlier  and  simpler  civilization.  Again,  the  standards  by 
which  manhood  is  estimated  have  changed  materially.  In 
the  past  a  man  who  excelled  in  military  gifts  and  accomplish- 
ments became  the  idol  and  the  ideal  of  his  countrymen. 
His  education,  his  language,  his  general  conduct  w^ere  not  of 
so  much  importance  as  his  skill  in  warfare;  for  military 
achievement  was  the  standard  by  which  men  were  mainly 
measured.  In  these  latter  days,  the  fact  has  been  established 
that  true  manhood  can  be  expressed  in  peace  as  well  as  in 
war;  for  honesty,  sobriety,  industry,  and  brotherly  love  are 
more  positive  evidences  of  true  and  noble  manhood  than 
prowess  in  battle. 

Illustrations  might  be  given  to  show  that  many  factors 
have  been  added  to  our  conception  of  ideal  manhood  during 
the  course  of  the  evolution  of  society,  but  this  is  not  nec- 
essary. Every  student  of  history,  and  every  observer  of 
mankind,  can  supply  as  many  examples  as  he  desires.  To- 
day many  forces  and  influences  are  required  to  mould  and 
develop  the  complete  man.  He  must  have  a  sound  body, 
well  proportioned  and  strong.  He  must  have  at  least  a  fairly 
good  academic  education.  He  must  have  some  knowledge 


66  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

of  social  customs,  and  deport  himself  properly  among  his 
fellows.  He  must  have  a  vocational  preparation  that  will 
enable  him  to  achieve  success  in  some  honorable  field  of  hu- 
man activity.  Above  all,  he  must  represent  in  his  conduct, 
at  home  and  elsewhere,  the  moral  and  religious  elements 
which  modern  civilization  approves.  It  is  not  claimed  that 
a  person  can  fully  combine  in  himself  all  these  desirable 
qualities.  He  may  from  some  natural  or  other  unpreventable 
cause  lack  one  or  even  more  of  them;  but  these  are  the  ele- 
ments and  qualities  which  enter  into  ideal  manhood,  and  for 
these  every  one  should  strive  in  the  endeavor  to  attain  as 
nearly  as  possible  this  high  standard  of  excellence. 

Character-building.  A  man  may  be  said  to  possess  a 
worthy  character  just  to  the  extent  that  he  understands  and 
exemplifies  in  himself  the  best  ideals  of  the  civilization  of 
which  he  is  a  part.  He  may  not  exemplify  all  of  these  ideals, 
nor  any  number  of  them  in  equal  degree,  and  yet  he  may  be 
a  worthy  and  useful  man  in  society.  On  the  other  hand,  how- 
ever, it  is  evident  that  a  person  who  emphasizes  or  exagger- 
ates a  small  number  of  even  desirable  character  ideals  to 
the  exclusion  of  others  could  not  be  said  to  possess  a  well- 
balanced  character,  or  be  a  very  useful  member  of  society. 
A  person's  character  may  be  said  to  be  evenly  balanced  just 
in  proportion  as  the  correct  relation  is  maintained  among 
the  elements  that  compose  or  make  up  his  ideals. 

Whenever  a  person  enlarges  his  conception  of  any  of  the 
ideals  of  our  civiUzation  or  embodies  any  of  them  in  his  own 
character,  he  takes  a  step  forward  in  proper  character- 
building.  It  is  thus  by  the  continual  enlargement  of  right 
conceptions  and  by  the  addition  of  high  aims  and  ideals  that 
true  character  is  built.  Excellence  and  bigness  of  character 
are  not  attained  suddenly  or  quickly,  but  by  gradual  devel- 
opment and  growth  which  begin  with  the  earliest  conceptions 
and  go  on  either  with  or  without  the  consciousness  of  the 


THE  ULTIMATE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  57 

individual  as  long  as  life  lasts.  This  truth  is  well  expressed  by 
the  poet  J.  G.  Holland  in  the  lines:  — 

"Heaven  is  not  reached  by  a  single  bound. 
But  we  build  the  ladder  by  which  we  rise 
From  the  lowly  earth  to  the  vaulted  skies, 
And  we  mount  to  its  summit,  round  by  round." 

A  person's  character  is  the  sum  of  his  ideals.  This  dis- 
cussion and  consideration  of  these  ideals  of  our  civiliza- 
tion and  their  relation  to  true  character-building  gives  a 
broader  conception  than  is  generally  held  of  what  consti- 
tutes a  good  or  desirable  character.  When  a  good  character 
is  understood  as  representing  in  itself  the  best  ideals  of  the 
present  civilization,  it  will  be  perceived  readily  that  it  in- 
cludes much  more  than  spiritual  development.  It  does  in- 
clude all  the  moral  and  manly  virtues  which  indicate  high 
ideals  of  life  and  conduct  as  opposed  to  immoraUty,  idleness, 
ignorance,  coarseness,  dishonesty,  and  other  qualities  which 
betoken  low  ideals  and  consequently  weak  or  evil  character; 
and  it  includes  much  more.  It  embraces  all  of  the  best  ideals 
of  the  present,  and  the  more  of  these  a  person  possesses  and 
exemplifies,  the  fuller  and  richer  will  be  his  character.  If  a 
man  could  represent  in  himself  all  the  best  and  noblest 
Ideals  of  the  present  civilization,  he  would  have  attained  to 
the  highest  degree  of  excellence  within  the  reach  of  mortal 
man.  Whether  a  man  possesses  many  or  only  a  few  of  these 
worthy  ideals,  or  whatever  the  nature  of  his  ideals  may  be, 
all  combined  will  make  up  his  character;  for  a  man's  char- 
acter represents  the  sum  of  his  ideals.  Since  this  is  true, 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  he  gain  the  kind  of 
knowledge  and  experiences  that  will  give  him  the  best  ideals. 

The  plus  element  in  education.  If  character,  as  here  de- 
fined, is  the  end  and  aim  of  education,  then  there  must  be 
more  value  in  the  study  of  arithmetic,  geography,  and  his- 
tory than  a  mere  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  geography,  and 


58  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

history,  for  no  one  of  these  subjects,  nor  all  of  them  com- 
bined, can  produce  character.  There  must  be  something  in 
all  the  subjects  of  the  curriculum,  in  addition  to  the  informa- 
tion given,  which,  when  properly  used,  contributes  to  the 
formation  of  character,  and  is  therefore  of  greater  value  than 
the  subject-matter  itself.  This  by-product,  this  character- 
forming  material,  is  the  plus  element  in  education.  Knowl- 
edge is  the  warp;  and  this  plus  element,  which  every  subject 
taught  should  be  made  to  yield,  is  the  woof  of  character.  It 
is  the  varying  amount  of  this  plus  element  that  is  pro- 
duced in  different  schools  rather  than  the  varying  amount  of 
knowledge  of  the  subject  imparted  that  determines  their 
relative  worth.  Naturally  there  may  be  variations  in  the 
amount  of  warp  produced  in  different  cases;  but  when  there 
is  a  large  quantity  of  the  woof  present,  there  is  certain  to 
be  enough  warp  into  which  the  woof  may  be  woven. 

If  the  teacher  would  make  a  careful  study  of  the  ideals  of 
the  civilization  of  the  present,  and  in  turn  separate  each  of 
them  into  its  chief  elements,  he  would  have  no  difficulty  in 
discovering  plus  elements  in  the  lessons  which  he  teaches. 
In  the  schools  of  the  past,  it  was  an  almost  universal  custom 
to  test  growth  in  terms  of  the  subject-matter,  and  to  some 
extent  this  is  true  of  the  schools  of  the  present.  This  view- 
point of  the  aim  of  education  has  made  many  teachers 
blind  to  all  other  phases  of  instruction.  They  hear  defini- 
tions of  education,  and  they  even  listen  to  discussions  upon 
character  as  its  ultimate  aim;  but  their  imperfect  concep- 
tions of  the  real  meaning  and  aim  of  education  prevents 
their  understanding  the  full  meaning  and  import  of  these 
discussions.  It  is  not  surprising  that  teachers  having  this 
narrow  and  imperfect  conception  of  the  ultimate  aim  think 
only  of  the  immediate  aim  in  its  subject-matter  sense  as 
something  quite  unrelated  to  character-building.  Teachers 
must  give  special  attention  to  finding  and  using  the  plus 


THE  ULTIMATE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  59 

element  in  the  daily  lessons  of  the  class-room  if  they  would 
become  real  character-builders. 

Large  aim  in  education.  When  all  the  definitions  of 
education  and  its  ultimate  aim  which  have  been  proposed 
by  great  educators  and  philosophers  have  been  examined,  it 
will  be  found  they  all  agree  that  the  supreme  purpose  of  ed- 
ucation is  character-building,  and  the  ultimate  result  char- 
acter. If  teachers  would  recognize  this  fact  more  fully  than 
they  generally  do,  they  would  understand  that  education 
must  show  its  result  in  the  character  of  the  individual  rather 
than  in  the  amount  of  objective  knowledge  he  acquires,  and 
they  would  strive  more  for  the  subjective  result  in  the 
character  of  the  individual.  This  does  not  suggest  that 
objective  matter  is  not  to  be  presented,  nor  that  subjective 
and  objective  teaching  are  widely  separated  and  inharmoni- 
ous processes.  On  the  contrary,  the  objective  elements  are 
necessary  and  must  be  correlated  with  the  subjective,  for  a 
person  can  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  self  only  through  a 
knowledge  of  things  external  to  himself.  The  two  ideas  or 
immediate  purposes  in  teaching,  the  subjective  and  the 
objective,  should  be  combined  and  unified  in  such  a  way 
that  in  the  presentation  of  objective  knowledge,  more  of  the 
plus  element  may  be  produced  and  the  desired  subjective 
reaction  be  attained. 

Character  aim  attained  through  right  teaching.  Every 
teacher  has  some  kind  of  aim,  for  there  could  be  no  teaching 
without  an  aim.  Very  often,  however,  this  aim  is  narrow, 
imperfect,  or  it  is  directed  toward  a  wrong  end.  Therefore, 
good  teaching,  w  ith  satisfactory  results,  cannot  be  expected 
in  such  cases.  To  make  desirable  results  possible  from  the 
efforts  of  any  teacher,  the  aim  toward  which  the  teaching  is 
directed  must  be  first  of  all  the  truest  and  highest  that  can 
be  attained  in  the  preparation  for  life  and  effective  service. 
In  the  second  place,  the  teaching  must  be  definite  and  con- 


60  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

slant,  that  all  the  effort  may  be  constantly  directed  toward 
the  attainment  of  this  aim.  The  teacher  who  truly  under- 
stands the  ultimate  aim  of  education  and  endeavors  by  the 
best  means  within  his  reach  to  attain  it  will  seek  to  inspire 
his  pupils  with  the  highest  ideals.  To  this  end,  he  will 
make  use  of  the  objective  element  in  such  a  way  as  to 
produce  as  much  as  possible  of  the  subjective  or  plus 
element  in  his  teaching.  When  teachers  more  generally 
learn  the  value  of  such  teaching,  and  learn  how  to  apply 
this  knowledge  to  their  own  work,  the  instruction  in  the 
schools  will  contribute  more  positively  to  the  great  work  of 
character-building;  and  the  ultimate  aim,  the  supreme  aim 
of  education,  will  in  a  larger  measure  be  attained.  As  a 
result,  when  the  pupils  in  the  schools  come  to  take  their 
places  as  men  and  women  in  their  communities,  they 
will  more  and  more  represent  in  their  lives,  in  their  work, 
in  their  civic  and  social  relations,  in  the  home,  and  in  the 
church,  the  best  ideals  of  the  civilization  in  which  they  live. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Craftsmanship  in  Teaching,  Bagley,  pp.  43-45,  58-62. 
Principles  of  Education,  Klapper,  pp.  6-18. 
Educative  Process,  Bagley,  pp.  22,  41-66,  222-24. 
Principles  of  Elementary  Education,  Bachmaa,  pp.  168-76. 
The  Art  of  Education,  Howerth,  pp.  202-10. 
Principles  of  Teaching,  Harvey,  pp.  47,  66-82. 
Education  and  the  Larger  Life,  Henderson,  pp.  6-7. 
All  the  Children  of  All  the  People,  Smith,  chaps,  i,  xxii.  " 
Classroom  Management,  Bagley,  pp.  7-8. 
The  Meaning  of  Education,  Butler,  pp.  19-21. 
Education  and  the  Larger  Life,  Henderson,  pp.  6-7. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  as  clearly  as  you  can  your  idea  of  what  constitutes  an  education. 
According  to  your  idea  of  an  education,  define  an  educated  person. 

2.  In  the  deiinitions  of  education  given  in  this  chapter  and  by  the  au- 


THE  ULTIMATE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  61 

thors  referred  to  in  suggested  readings,  you  will  note  that  no  branches 
61  studies  are  mentioned.  Why  is  this?  Have  you  ever  heard  any 
one  speak  of  education  in  terms  of  branches  of  learning? 

3.  What  is  your  idea  of  the  signiflcance  of  the  term  "character"? 

4.  What  is  your  understanding  of  an  ideal?  Do  children  have  ideals? 
Why  do  a  person's  ideals  change?  How  are  ideals  formed?  Are  ideals 
ever  realized? 

5.  State  in  detail  some  of  the  desirable  qualities  of  a  man  at  the  head  of 
a  family.  Write  of  him  as  father  and  as  citizen. 

6.  Write  out  in  detail  your  conception  of  an  ideal  city.  Name  some  city 
that  comes  nearest  to  your  ideal. 

7.  Name  some  of  the  necessary  qualities  of  an  ideal  citizen.  Name  some  of 
the  qualities  of  a  woman  that  you  admire.  Think  of  the  best  teacher  you 
have  ever  had,  and  name  some  of  the  elements  of  worth  he  possessed. 

8.  Explain  your  idea  of  what  constitutes  a  religious  man  or  woman. 
Could  such  a  person  be  a  success  in  the  industrial  or  the  business 
world? 

9.  Having  in  mind  some  persons  of  your  acquaintance,  apply  to  them  the 
test  of  your  ideal  man  or  woman. 

10.  Think  of  the  most  useful  men  you  know,  and  consider  whether  the 
schools,  as  you  know  them,  produce  such  men.  Name  some  qualities 
that  they  possess  which  the  schools  do  not  give. 

11.  In  which  of  the  classes  mentioned  in  this  chapter  do  you  think  your 
ideals  are  the  most  highly  developed?  Are  they  merely  a  matter  of 
knowledge  or  do  they  express  themselves  in  your  life? 


CHAPTER  IV 

HAPPINESS  AS  RELATED  TO  EDUCATION 

The  desire  for  happiness  universal.  A  desire  for  happi- 
ness is  an  almost  universal  longing  of  the  human  heart.  It 
is  as  deeply  and  as  strongly  implanted  as  the  love  of  life 
itself.  It  is  sought  because  of  the  real  or  imagined  enjoy- 
ment it  is  supposed  to  yield.  Without  knowing  exactly  how 
it  is  to  be  secured,  nearly  every  one  is  seeking  it  and  hoping 
to  attain  it  some  time.  The  means  by  which  people  are  striv- 
ing for  this  much-desired  end  are  as  many  and  as  varied  as 
their  conceptions  of  what  constitutes  happiness  and  of  the 
conditions  and  attainments  that  will  produce  it.  This  is 
necessarily  so,  for  a  condition  that  one  person  might  im- 
agine would  bring  him  satisfaction  and  happiness  might  not 
offer  any  attractive  features  to  some  other  person.  Mac- 
Kenzie  says  that,  "What  constitutes  our  happiness  depends 
on  the  universe  or  realm  of  ideals  in  which  we  Uve.  The 
happiness  of  a  wise  man  is  very  different  from  that  of  the 
fool."  Thus  it  is  that  we  find  one  person  seeking  some 
particular  object  that  is  expected  to  yield  satisfaction  and 
joy,  while  another  person  is  seeking  something  altogether 
different. 

Man's  labor  and  effort  are  directed  along  many  different 
lines  of  endeavor  in  the  vocational,  the  social,  and  the 
political  world.  This  effort  apparently  has  for  its  specific 
aim  the  attainment  of  wealth,  position,  fame,  or  some  other 
coveted  end;  but  these  objects  are  not  really  the  ultimate 
ends  for  which  men  toil.  They  are  rather  means  or  instru- 
ments for  the  attainment  of  some  desired  goal,  which  may  be 
expressed  as  success,  satisfaction,  or  happiness  for  the  in- 


HAPPINESS  AS  RELATED  TO  EDUCATION      63 

dividual  himself,  or  for  some  one  for  whom  he  plans  and 
labors.  A  person's  belief  in  the  desirability  of  the  particular 
aim  for  which  he  labors  is  often  so  strong  as  to  overshadow 
all  other  considerations,  and  leads  him  to  devote  his  life  to 
hard  work,  sacrifices,  and  all  kinds  of  self-denial  in  order  to 
attain  it.  Not  infrequently  the  hope  of  securing  it  by  some 
quick  or  short-cut  process  tempts  him  to  resort  to  unright- 
eous or  illegal  means  to  that  end,  and  by  this  means,  he 
defeats  the  very  aim  in  view;  for  anything  thus  secured  can- 
not bring  satisfaction  and  happiness. 

The  quest  of  happiness  legitimate.  Many  persons  treat 
the  desire  for  happiness  as  a  hunger  or  craving  that  is  harm- 
ful to  the  individual,  and  therefore  to  be  repressed.  This  is 
a  mistaken  idea.  It  is  not  the  natural  desire  or  wish  for 
happiness  that  injures  the  person  seeking  it;  but  it  is  the 
irregular  and  often  harmful  means  which  he  takes  for  secur- 
ing it,  in  the  mistaken  belief  that  it  is  to  be  attained  only  in 
this  way.  The  pursuit  of  happiness  is  not  be  to  condemned; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  it  should  be  encouraged,  provided  it  be 
properly  directed  and  regulated.  The  human  heart  should 
be  filled  with  joy  and  gladness,  not  with  sadness  and  despair; 
for  man  must  have  joy  in  his  heart  in  order  to  do  his  best 
work  and  fully  realize  the  purpose  of  his  existence.  The 
Bible  contains  many  allusions  to  the  desire  for  happiness  and 
joy  as  desirable,  and  mentions  means  by  which  they  may  be 
obtained.  The  Psalmist  saw  in  the  result  of  true  character- 
building  that  "fulness  of  joy"  which  he  places  above  all 
other  rewards.  The  sanction  put  upon  the  right  quest  of 
happiness  by  the  Divine  writers  and  the  world's  great  phi- 
losophers, as  well  as  the  universality  of  the  desire  for  its 
attainment,  shows  that  man  ought  to  have  joy  in  his  work. 
Therefore  his  education,  his  preparation  for  life,  should  in- 
clude some  knowledge  of  the  means  by  which  it  may  be 
attained. 


64  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

Happiness  sought  through  self-gratification.  People  are 
seeking  happiness  by  many  and  varied  means,  according  to 
their  varied  conceptions  of  its  nature,  and  of  the  roads  which 
lead  to  it.  Some  seek  it  wisely  through  the  observance  of 
law,  and  by  those  means  which  are  in  harmony  with  estab- 
lished principles  and  ideas  of  right.  Others,  mistaking  the 
means  for  attaining  it,  seek  it  through  the  violation  of  law. 
Many  persons  expect  to  find  happiness  through  the  gratifi- 
cation of  the  physical  nature,  others  seek  it  though  the  effort 
to  satisfy  intellectual  hungers,  and  still  others  search  for  it 
by  spiritual  or  religious  means.  A  great  many  persons  expect 
to  find  happiness  in  social  pleasures,  in  amusements,  in 
the  accumulation  of  wealth,  in  the  attainment  of  political 
position,  or  in  some  other  form  of  self -gratification.  Other 
persons  look  for  satisfaction  and  happiness  through  fostering 
and  indulging  the  taste  for  literature,  music,  and  the  other 
fine  arts.  They  read  books,  they  listen  to  music,  and  they 
enjoy  the  works  of  art  by  which  more  gifted  persons  have 
given  expression  to  their  best  ideas  and  their  most  beautiful 
dreams  and  visions.  By  so  doing,  these  seekers  after  happi- 
ness believe  that  they  will  realize  it  in  the  satisfaction  and 
the  enjoyment  which  they  will  experience  in  the  contempla- 
tion of  the  works  of  great  writers,  musicians,  and  artists. 

Among  the  seekers  after  happiness,  none  find  more  joy  in 
the  search,  and  none  are  more  likely  to  discover  it,  than 
those  who  are  looking  for  it  in  the  contemplation  and  enjoy- 
ment of  nature.  Ruskin,  who  is  undoubtedly  the  greatest 
prophet  and  lover  of  nature  of  recent  times,  relates  how  even 
as  a  child  he  felt  a  thrill  of  joy  beyond  words  to  describe, 
to  use  his  own  language,  "  A  joy  in  nature  which  seemed 
to  me  to  come  from  a  sort  of  heart  hunger."  He  and  many 
other  lovers  of  nature  in  her  various  moods  have  found  their 
happiness  in  her  presence,  not  in  personal  delight  alone, 
but  also  in  reproducing  for  the  pleasure  of  others  the  marvels 


HAPPINESS  AS   RELATED  TO  EDUCATION       65 

and  delights  which  they  have  themselves  enjoyed.  Some 
marked  cases  of  the  joy  experienced  in  the  contemplation  of 
nature  are  worthy  of  note  at  this  point  because  of  their  sug- 
gestiveness.  The  love  of  the  Hebrew  race  for  nature  seems  to 
have  been  instinctive,  and  the  beautiful  imagery  of  David, 
Job,  and  other  Hebrew  writers  attests  the  acquaintance  of  the 
old  Hebrew  poets  with  the  beautiful  and  sublime  in  nature. 
It  has  been  rightly  said  that,  if  the  descriptions  of  nature 
were  taken  out  of  the  Bible,  literature  would  lose  some  of  its 
greatest  chapters.  The  frequent  references  to  nature  in  the 
writings  of  the  world's  great  poets  from  Homer  down  to 
Wordsworth  and  our  own  Bryant,  show  that  they  were  all 
students  and  lovers  of  Nature,  and  that  from  her  they  drew 
their  loftiest  inspirations,  and  found  suggestions  for  their 
finest  utterances.  Moreover,  many  of  them  testify  that  in 
her  they  find  their  wisest  teachers,  and  their  truest  happi- 
ness. For  such  there  are  "  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the 
running  brooks,  sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything  " 
which  nature  holds.  The  poet  Wordsworth  beautifully  ex- 
presses what  has  often  been  felt  by  others  as  well  as  himself 
when  he  says :  — 

"Therefore  am  I  still 
A  lover  of  the  meadows  and  the  woods. 
And  mountains;  and  of  all  that  we  behold 
From  this  green  earth;  of  all  the  mighty  world 
Of  eye,  and  ear,  —  both  what  they  half  create. 
And  what  perceive;  well  pleased  to  recognize 
In  nature  and  the  language  of  the  sense. 
The  anchor  of  my  purest  thoughts,  the  nurse, 
The  guide,  the  guardian  of  my  heart. 
.  .  .  Nature  never  did  betray 
The  heart  that  loved  her;  't  is  her  privilege. 
Through  all  the  years  of  this  our  life,  to  lead 
From  joy  to  joy:  for  she  can  so  inform 
The  mind  that  is  within  us,  so  impress 
With  quietness  and  beauty,  and  so  feed 
With  lofty  thoughts,  that  neither  evil  tongues. 
Rash  judgments,  nor  the  sneers  of  selfish  men. 


66  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

Nor  greetings  where  no  kindness  is,  nor  all 
The  dreary  intercourse  of  daily  life. 
Shall  e'er  prevail  against  us,  or  disturb 
Our  cheerful  faith."  * 

Happiness  through  service  for  others.  Still  other  persons 
find  their  truest  happiness  in  service  for  others,  in  efforts  to 
improve  the  conditions,  to  lighten  the  burdens,  and  to 
brighten  the  lives  of  their  fellow-men.  To  this  end  they  de- 
vote as  much  of  their  time,  their  talents,  and  their  money  as 
their  circumstances  will  permit.  The  methods  by  which  these 
workers  for  humanity  seek  to  attain  their  worthy  aims  are 
as  many  and  as  varied  as  the  avenues  of  human  endeavor. 
Some  try  to  improve  the  physical  condition  of  man,  others 
endeavor  to  cultivate  the  intellectual  nature  of  man,  and 
still  others  labor  for  the  development  of  the  spiritual  nature. 
Some  persons  who  make  the  welfare  of  their  fellows  the 
primary  object  of  their  efforts,  try  to  contribute  to  man's 
material  comforts  and  conveniences,  and  others  labor  for  the 
highest  development  and  growth  of  his  character. 

The  pages  of  history  and  the  daily  press  furnish  innum- 
erable examples  of  men  and  women,  inspired  with  a  love 
for  humanity,  who  have  given  freely  of  their  time  and  of 
themselves  in  unselfish  efforts  to  improve  the  condition 
and  minister  to  the  needs  of  others.  Many  social  welfare 
workers  like  General  Booth,  Jacob  Riis,  and  Jane  Addams, 
whose  love  for  humanity  has  overshadowed  all  considera- 
tions of  self-gratification,  have  devoted  all  the  energies  of 
their  great  intellects  to  solving  the  social  problems  of  their 
unfortunate  brothers  and  sisters  in  the  dark  alleys  and  the 
crowded  tenements.  They  have  found  their  highest  joy  and 
fullest  happiness  in  the  gratifying  results  of  their  labors. 
Many  scientists  and  workers  in  material  things  have  made 
discoveries  and  invented  tools  and  machinery  that  have  im- 

1  Tinlern  Abbey. 


HAPPINESS  AS  RELATED  TO  EDUCATION       67 

proved  labor  conditions  and  lessened  the  drudgery  of  a  multi- 
tude of  persons;  and  in  so  doing  they  have  thought  more  of 
the  benefit  they  have  wrought  to  others  than  of  the  material 
gain  to  themselves.  Many  other  examples  might  be  given, 
but  it  is  not  necessary;  for  every  reader  can  cite  instances 
from  his  own  knowledge  of  persons  who  have  thus  devoted 
their  lives  to  the  service  of  their  fellows,  and  have  testified 
that  in  so  doing  they  found  their  greatest  joy  and  happiness. 
Observation  and  experience  both  show  that  whatever  may 
be  the  specific  aim  sought  by  those  who  wish  to  serve  their 
fellow-men,  and  whatever  may  be  the  methods  employed  to 
realize  it,  the  gain  to  those  for  whom  the  work  is  done  is  not 
more  certain  and  positive  than  the  blessing  of  satisfaction 
and  happiness  that  comes  to  those  who,  either  solely  in  or 
addition  to  their  regular  vocations,  make  service  for  human- 
ity a  distinct  and  constant  aim. 

Happiness  an  aid  to  best  effort.  Happiness  is  desirable  not 
alone  because  of  the  exultant  thrills  of  joy  and  the  content- 
ment and  satisfaction  which  it  gives,  but  because  it  is  a 
condition  in  which  a  person  can  do  his  most  effective  work. 
It  is,  in  short,  a  practical  blessing;  for  when  the  heart  is 
filled  with  joy,  the  hand  can  do  its  best  work;  when  the  soul 
is  exulting  and  rejoicing,  the  head  can  think  its  loftiest  and 
most  inspiring  thoughts.  A  person  who  is  habitually  morbid 
and  depressed  cannot  do  his  best  in  executing  a  really  fine 
piece  of  work  that  calls  for  thought  and  invention.  He  may 
work  like  a  machine  at  an  appointed  task,  but  he  cannot 
create  a  thing  of  beauty  or  of  meaning.  No  person  can 
render  his  best  service,  either  economically  or  socially,  to 
the  community  in  which  he  lives,  unless  his  own  life  yields  a 
reasonable  amount  of  satisfaction  and  happiness.  Unless  his 
own  social  needs  and  spiritual  hungers  are  satisfied  to  some 
degree,  he  is  not  in  a  condition  to  return  a  just  equivalent  in 
service  to  others.    A  great  singer  who  is  esteemed  for  her 


68  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

womanly  qualities  as  well  as  because  of  her  glorious  voice, 
recently  made  the  statement  that  a  singer  can  sing  her  best 
only  when  she  is  happy.  No  matter  how  great  her  tone  reg- 
isters or  her  natural  gift  in  voice,  her  heart  must  dream  its 
finest  dreams,  —  her  own  soul  must  really  sing,  —  if  she  is  to 
put  soul  into  her  voice  and  interpret  for  her  hearers  the 
composition  which  she  attempts  to  render. 

Humanity's  hunger  for  happiness  should  not  be  decried 
and  repressed,  but  rather  fostered,  if  man  is  to  produce  his 
best  work  and  render  the  most  efficient  service  of  which  he  is 
capable  in  his  particular  department  of  human  effort.  For 
this  reason  it  is  desirable,  when  educators  are  considering  the 
fundamental  principles  of  the  life  philosophy  which  should 
furnish  a  basis  for  the  education  of  the  young,  that  they 
present  some  constructive  practical  ideas  and  principles 
that  underlie  the  right  attainment  of  joy  and  happiness  in 
the  daily  tasks  of  life.  It  is  essential  that  the  teacher  should 
know  these  principles,  in  order  that  he  may  create  such 
conditions  in  his  schoolroom  and  inspire  his  pupils  with 
such  an  attitude  toward  their  work  that  they  will  consider 
it  a  pleasure  rather  than  drudgery.  Further,  such  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  correct  principles  underlying  true  happiness 
will  enable  him  to  instruct  his  pupils  in  the  means  by  which 
they  may  be  happy,  not  only  in  the  discharge  of  their  daily 
tasks,  but  in  their  future  lives  and  work. 

Happiness  through  obedience  to  law.  An  examination  of  a 
few  of  the  means  that  are  used  in  the  search  for  happiness 
reveals  the  fact  that  these  lead  to  the  desired  goal  only  when 
they  are  employed  in  accordance  with  the  fundamental 
principle  which  underlies  the  pursuit  of  true  happiness. 
This  principle  or  law  is  embodied  in  the  statement  that  the 
chief  joys  of  life  come  from  a  ready  and  willing  obedience  to  just 
laws.  The  term  law  as  here  used  is  intended  to  include  all 
the  rules  that  govern  life  and  conduct ;  and  hence  it  includes 


HAPPINESS  AS  RELATED  TO  EDUCATION       GO 

not  only  the  laws  that  govern  civil  and  social  life,  but  those 
that  regulate  the  i)hysical,  moral,  and  spiritual  life  as  well. 
A  careful  analysis  of  any  of  the  laws  that  fall  under  one  of 
these  classes  and  of  the  purpose  which  it  serves,  will  show 
that  the  idea  underlying  it  is  the  good  of  man.  It  has  been 
truly  said  that,  "  God  has  ordained  that  every  act  of  obedi- 
ence to  His  laws  lends  strength  and  resonance  to  those  chords 
that  vibrate  joy."  Indeed  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  all  just 
laws  exist  for  the  welfare  of  the  individual  and  the  good  of 
society  in  general.  An  understanding  of  these  laws  and  of 
the  relation  which  a  careful  observance  of  their  requirements 
bears  to  man's  happiness  should  make  people  not  only  will- 
ing, but  desirous  of  obeying  thera. 

Violation  of  law  brings  penalty.  Man  needs  guidance  in 
the  discharge  of  his  duties  and  in  the  indulgence  of  his  tastes 
and  desires,  and  for  this  reason  he  must  have  guide-posts 
along  the  highway  of  life  to  point  the  way  and  to  warn  him 
of  pitfalls  and  other  impending  dangers.  The  laws  and  rules 
which  govern  life  and  conduct  serve  as  these  guide-posts  to 
direct  man  and  to  prevent  his  falling  into  error  through 
ignorance  and  lack  of  warning  and  direction.  If  man  were  a 
mere  creature  of  chance,  and  his  life  a  haphazard  mingling 
of  unrelated  and  unregulated  events  and  conditions,  he 
would  be  in  a  constant  state  of  confusion  and  uncertainty 
that  would  destroy  his  harmony  with  the  universe  and 
make  civilization  impossible.  A  little  reflection  upon  this 
subject  will  convince  any  intelligent  person  that  happiness 
and  satisfaction  can  come  only  through  a  proper  regard  for 
the  guide-posts  and  warnings  along  the  way;  in  short, 
through  a  ready  obedience  to  the  necessary  rules  and  laws. 
Besides,  man  is  responsible  for  the  breaking  of  these  laws, 
whether  he  knows  thera  or  not;  and  he  must  suffer  the  conse- 
quences, whether  he  breaks  a  law  of  health  or  a  law  of  the 
land. 


70  THE   PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

Laws  of  nature  discovered  through  experience.  The  laws 

of  nature  are  fixed  and  eternal,  and  it  is  only  as  man  learns 
and  observes  them  that  he  can  adjust  himself  to  society.  As 
with  all  laws,  ignorance  of  them  does  not  make  a  person 
exempt  from  the  penalty  of  disregarding  them.  Hence  it  is 
the  more  essential  that  he  who  wishes  to  enjoy  the  benefits 
that  follow  an  observance  of  these  laws,  and  to  escape  the 
penalty  of  violating  them,  should  learn  what  they  are  and 
regulate  his  life  according  to  their  requirements.  These  laws 
have  been  discovered  by  man  in  his  efforts  to  adjust  himself 
to  the  conditions  in  which  he  finds  himself.  As  they  have 
been  discovered,  they  have  been  recorded  and  preserved  for 
the  benefit  of  succeeding  generations;  and  those  who  wash 
may  inform  themselves  regarding  these  rules  without  under- 
going the  slow  and  often  undesirable  process  of  discovering 
and  learning  them  from  personal  experience.  Every  person 
should  know  at  least  such  of  these  laws  as  have  been  found 
most  serviceable  to  humanity  in  all  ages  and  those  whose 
observance  contributes  most  largely  to  individual  happiness 
and  to  the  general  good.  Many  of  these  relate  to  the  phys- 
ical man,  and  have  become  generally  known  through  the 
universal  experience  of  mankind.  Among  these  laws  are  those 
relating  to  food,  sleep,  rest,  overwork,  exposure  to  unwhole- 
some conditions,  and  other  matters  of  everyday  experience. 
Since  most  people  have  learned  these  laws  either  from 
personal  exjjerience,  through  observation,  or  by  testing  the 
experiences  and  testimony  of  others,  they  understand  the 
wisdom  of  keeping  them  as  well  as  the  penalty  of  disregard- 
ing them.  Notwithstanding  this  fact,  there  are  many  peo- 
ple who  habitually  ignore  these  laws  when  they  conflict 
with  the  pursuit  of  some  pleasure  w^hich  seems  to  promise 
satisfaction  and  joy.  Such  unwise  seekers  after  happiness 
find,  often  to  their  sorrow,  that  real  happiness  cannot  be  se- 
cured by  such  means,  and  that  the  promised  joy  was  a  mere 


HAPPINESS  AS  RELATED  TO  EDUCATION       71 

will-o'-the-wisp  which  vanished  when  they  attempted  to 
seize  it.  People  often  recklessly  violate  well-known  physical 
laws  for  so-called  pleasure,  and  gain  in  return  only  useless 
regrets  and  often  untold  suffering  in  broken  health.  They 
understand  the  laws,  they  know  the  result  of  breaking  them; 
but  they  are  unwilling  to  observe  what  they  acknowledge  to 
be  reasonable  requirements,  because  of  some  real  or  im- 
agined exertion,  personal  discomfort,  or  self-denial. 

Social  laws  evolved  in  the  development  of  civilization. 
Social  laws  are  the  outgrowth  of  social  conditions  and  re- 
quirements and  of  the  efforts  of  mankind  to  make  the 
proper  adjustments  to  these  conditions  and  requirements. 
During  the  evolution  of  society,  the  laws  and  rules  which 
regulate  and  govern  the  conduct  of  man  as  a  social  being 
have  been  defined  and  established.  This  leads  naturally 
to  the  idea  of  social  integrity  which  is  defined  in  terms  of 
these  laws  and  is  maintained  by  the  observance  of  them. 
They  are  in  general  accepted  as  reasonable  and  wise,  and  yet 
they  are  often  knowingly  broken  by  persons  who  understand 
them  and  are  fully  acquainted  with  the  consequences  of 
breaking  them.  Unfortunately,  such  persons  have  not  culti- 
vated the  habit  of  being  guided  by  their  honest  and  best 
judgments,  nor  of  giving  ready  and  willing  obedience  to  law. 
They  choose  rather  to  follow  their  impulses  or  the  desires  for 
some  immediate  comfort,  pleasure,  or  gain,  without  con- 
sidering future  consequences. 

Social  laws  broken  through  wrong  conception  of  a  life 
purpose.  Persons  who  heedlessly  or  willfully  violate  the  laws 
of  society  either  do  not  possess  a  high  ulterior  aim  in  life,  or 
they  do  not  have  the  moral  strength  to  follow  their  convic- 
tions. In  formulating  their  conception  of  a  life  aim,  they 
have  consciously  or  unconsciously  neglected  to  include  in  it 
these  elements  that  would  give  it  stability  and  real  worth. 
Their  conception  of  a  life  purpose  consists  in  the  securing 


72  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

of  a  position  in  the  business,  social,  or  political  world,  in 
accumulating  wealth,  in  owning  a  fine  house,  in  wearing  ex- 
pensive clothing,  or  in  having  a  "  good  time."  A  life  based 
solely  upon  such  aims  can  never  bring  true  happiness;  but 
it  may  bring  social  ostracism,  disappointment,  and  even 
despair.  Every  one  should  have  a  definite  life  purpose, 
founded  upon  some  worthy  aim  to  which  he  consecrates  his 
best  powers  and  efforts,  instead  of  merely  drifting  aimlessly 
from  one  piu-pose  to  another  and  from  one  chance  activity 
to  some  other  that  attracts  him.  Those  persons  who  have  for 
their  ultimate  aim  true  character-building  with  all  that  this 
includes,  and  who  are  willing  to  be  guided  by  just  laws  and 
to  conform  their  lives  to  the  requirements  of  these  laws,  do 
gain  rewards  in  contentment  and  happiness  with  the  ac- 
companying delights. 

Breaking  of  law  fatal  to  happiness.  History  and  literature 
tell  many  sad  stories  of  those  who  have  missed  success  and 
happiness  because  they  did  not  select  a  worthy  life  purpose, 
and  did  not  observe  the  established  laws  of  nature  and  of 
society.  Every  one  is  familiar  with  the  story  of  the  great 
military  leader  who  is  reported  to  have  wept  because  there 
were  no  more  worlds  for  him  to  conquer,  but  who  could  not 
conquer  self  and  the  desire  for  self -gratification.  Though  he 
had  overcome  kingdoms,  he  could  not  overcome  his  love  of 
pleasure,  and  hence  he  fell  a  victim  to  self-indulgence  and 
broken  laws.  There  is  also  that  other  miUtary  genius  who, 
because  his  life  purpose  was  based  upon  a  selfish  motive,  and 
because  he  violated  the  laws  of  God  and  man,  missed  hap- 
piness and  died  a  broken-hearted  exile  on  a  lonely  isle  far 
from  his  native  land.  One  has  but  to  glance  over  the  pages 
of  history  to  find  the  names  of  many  persons  who,  by  their 
natural  gifts,  were  fitted  for  the  attainment  of  success  and  hap- 
piness through  service  for  humanity,  but  who  have  missed 
both  by  trying  to  attain  selfish  purposes.   Instead  of  sue- 


HAPPINESS  AS  RELATED  TO  EDUCATION       73 

cess,  failure  has  been  written  after  their  names,  because  by 
trying  to  realize  some  selfish  life  purpose  through  the  viola- 
tion of  law,  they  have  missed  that  for  which  they  struggled. 
Every  reader  of  these  pages  can  recall  cases  from  personal 
knowledge  to  illustrate  the  wisdom  of  obeying  and  the  folly 
of  disobeying  established  laws.  Every  community  furnishes 
examples  of  young  men  who,  with  the  same  opportunities, 
have  started  out  in  life  together,  but  have  taken  different 
paths  for  the  attainment  of  success  and  the  realization  of 
their  life  purposes.  The  one,  taking  for  his  life  aim  the 
achievement  of  some  unworthy  ambition  which  he  tried  to 
realize  through  the  disregard  or  the  violation  of  law,  has  in 
the  end  found  failure  and  disappointment.  The  other, 
basing  his  life  purpose  upon  the  worthy  aims  of  character- 
building  and  service  for  humanity,  has  attained  his  life  pur- 
pose through  an  observance  of  law,  and  has  gained  satisfac- 
tion and  happiness.  An  example,  illustrative  of  this,  is  the 
case  of  two  men  who  graduated  from  a  well-known  college 
in  the  same  class.  They  had  the  same  income.  They  had 
about  an  equal  amount  of  ability,  and  their  chances  for 
success  were  about  the  same.  They  engaged  in  business  in 
the  same  State.  The  one  centered  all  his  aims  on  the  achieve- 
ment of  position  and  wealth,  which  he  determined  to  acquire 
by  any  and  all  means  within  his  power,  regardless  of  the 
rights  and  interests  of  other  persons.  The  other,  also,  desired 
to  win  success  in  his  chosen  occupation,  but  he  made  these 
aims  secondary  to  the  building-up  of  a  reputation  for  hon- 
esty and  integrity  and  the  development  of  a  worthy  charac- 
ter. He  found  his  greatest  pleasure  in  service  for  his  fellow- 
men,  while  the  other  sought  his  in  questionable  pleasures  and 
pursuits.  The  one  had  the  respect  and  confidence  of  all  who 
knew  him;  the  other,  through  his  greed  for  money,  com- 
mitted a  crime  which  led  to  his  spending  his  last  years  in 
prison. 


74  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

The  difference  between  human  beings  is  not  so  much  one 
of  ability  and  power  as  of  purpose,  ideals,  and  character.  A 
business  man  recently  remarked  in  the  hearing  of  the  writer: 
"  What  we  need  in  our  business  is  young  men  and  women 
upon  whom  we  can  depend ;  and  what  we  ask  the  schools  to 
send  us  is  not  graduates  that  know  more  arithmetic  and 
bookkeeping,  but  young  people  who  are  reliable  and  trust- 
worthy. It  is  not  more  knowledge  but  more  principle  that 
we  want  in  our  employees.  We  have  adding  machines  and 
short -cut  devices  for  the  mechanical  processes,  and  any  one 
can  learn  to  use  them;  but  a  young  man  or  woman  to  win 
success  in  our  business  must  be  a  person  of  principle  and 
character,  willing  to  follow  instructions  and  to  observe  the 
rules  and  requirements  of  the  business." 

Happiness  within  the  reach  of  all.  At  the  present  day,  it 
would  seem  that  every  possible  means  is  being  employed  to 
direct  mankind  to  that  high  plane  of  thought  and  endeavor 
which  leads  to  the  attainment  of  satisfaction  and  happiness. 
With  schools,  libraries,  reading-rooms,  museums,  and  in 
many  cases,  vocational  training  shops,  thrown  invitingly 
open  to  all,  rich  and  poor  alike,  there  is  no  child  who  does 
not  have  the  opportunity  to  receive  such  instruction  and  to 
gain  such  knowledge  as  will  enable  him  to  direct  his  life  and 
effort  into  those  channels  where  he  will  find  satisfaction  and 
happiness.  In  this  enlightened  age  when  education  of  various 
kinds  is  free  to  all,  there  is  no  one  so  poor  or  so  humble  that 
he,  if  he  avails  himself  of  the  means  within  his  reach,  may 
not  reasonably  hope  to  secure  the  knowledge  that  will  enable 
him  to  give  the  right  trend  to  his  life,  and  thus  secure  the 
rich  blessings  of  peace  and  happiness. 

Happiness  not  dependent  upon  external  conditions.  The 
person  who  is  mentally  and  morally  equipped  to  meet  diffi- 
culties and  obstacles,  and  who  is  willing  to  observe  the  rules 
which  regulate  right  life  and  conduct,  need  not  fear  that  any 


HAPPINESS  AS  RELATED  TO  EDUCATION       75 

disaster  which  may  overtake  him  can  destroy  his  inward 
content  and  joy.  It  has  been  proved  again  and  again  that 
sickness,  financial  difficulties,  loss  of  position,  imprison- 
ment, and  persecution  cannot  rob  those  who  know  the  secret 
of  true  happiness  of  their  peace  and  joy.  As  a  fact,  many 
persons  while  suffering  from  one  or  more  of  these  calamities 
have  done  their  best  work  and  have  enjoyed  their  truest 
satisfaction.  It  might  be  thought  that  long  imprisonment 
would  dull  the  energy  of  a  man,  yet  some  of  our  great  writ- 
ers have  received  the  inspiration  for  their  loftiest  utterance 
while  in  gloomy  dungeons,  shut  away  from  the  light  of  the 
sun  and  the  associations  of  their  fellow-men.  It  was  while 
thus  confined  that  John  Bunyan  conceived  and  wrote  that 
marvelous  allegory.  The  Pilgrim's  Progress.  The  unconquer- 
able spirit  of  the  Apostle  Paul  rose  triumphant  over  the  great- 
est tribulations  and  persecutions  in  a  calm  peace  and  joy 
which  neither  persecution,  famine,  poverty,  the  sword, 
perils  by  land  and  sea,  nor  any  other  calamity  could  take 
from  him. 

"  The  soul  is  big  with  the  possibilities  of  happiness,"  is  an 
assertion  that  has  been  proved  true  again  and  again.  The 
story  of  Epictetus,  the  slave  philosopher,  is  a  striking 
example  of  this.  Subjected  to  the  most  inhuman  treatment 
by  his  cruel  master,  with  only  chance  moments  for  study, 
maimed  in  body  and  suffering  the  sharpest  pain,  he  with  in- 
domitable spirit  rose  victorious  over  all  these  conditions. 

The  habit  of  obejdng  law  should  be  formed  in  childhood. 
The  necessity  of  early  forming  the  habit  of  willing  obedience 
to  all  just  laws  is  the  more  apparent  when  we  consider  that 
there  is  no  sadder  page  in  all  history  than  the  record  of  the 
vain  attempts  of  people  to  find  happiness  through  the  viola- 
tion of  law.  The  pathways  which  by  many  persons  are  sup- 
posed to  lead  to  happiness  through  the  breaking  of  law,  are 
strewn  with  envy,  jealousy,  discontent,  remorse,  misery. 


76  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

and  wretchedness;  and  they  lead  not  to  happiness,  but  to 
disappointment,  despair,  and  often  even  to  death.  Although 
many  of  the  persons  who  travel  these  paths  know  the  laws 
and  the  penalties  for  breaking  them,  they  often  find  it  diflS- 
cult  and  sometimes  even  impossible  to  be  governed  and 
guided  by  the  laws  which  they  know  to  be  just,  because  they 
have  not  established  the  habit  of  obeying  law  or  of  following 
their  own  better  judgment.  This  fact  should  impress  the 
necessity  that  children  form,  along  with  correct  habits  of 
life  and  conduct,  the  habit  of  obedience  to  all  just  laws  and 
requirements. 

Psychologists  tell  us  that  habits  are  fixed  by  the  time  a 
person  is  thirty  years  of  age.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a 
person  over  twenty  years  old  can  rarely,  if  ever,  learn  to 
speak  a  foreign  language  without  accent;  and  sp>eech,  ges- 
ture, and  other  personal  habits  acquired  during  childhood 
and  youth  can  seldom  be  altogether  overcome.  For  this 
reason,  according  to  William  James,  "  We  must  make  auto- 
matic and  habitual,  as  early  as  possible,  as  many  useful 
actions  as  we  can;  and  we  must  guard  against  growing 
into  ways  that  are  likely  to  be  disadvantageous  to  us,  as  we 
should  guard  against  the  plague."  Parents  and  teachers 
can  greatly  aid  the  young  in  forming  habits  of  obedience  to 
helpful  laws.  By  informing  themselves  regarding  the  prin- 
ciples which  underlie,  not  only  the  rules  of  the  heart  and 
the  mind,  but  the  social  rules  as  well,  they  can  impart  to  the 
children  under  their  care  a  knowledge  of  these  laws,  and  the 
higher  satisfaction  and  happiness  which  comes  from  a  willing 
and  cheerful  obedience  of  them.  Since  whatever  is  done 
regularly  soon  becomes  a  fixed  habit,  and  is  then  done 
readily  and  without  effort,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
that  children  should  learn  correct  rather  than  wrong  habits, 
and  that  they  should  habitually  obey,  instead  of  break,  the 
reasonable  and  just  rules  of  life  and  conduct. 


HAPPINESS  AS  RELATED  TO  EDUCATION       77 

Happiness  impossible  without  observance  of  law.  What 
has  been  said  of  the  wisdom  of  keeping  the  laws  of  nature 
and  of  society  is  true  also  regarding  the  civil  law.  Since  these 
laws  exist  for  the  benefit  of  the  individual  and  for  the  wel- 
fare of  society  and  the  nation,  it  is  only  by  an  observance  of 
them  that  the  highest  good  of  mankind  in  general  and  as 
individuals  can  be  secured.  It  is  an  unalterable  truth  to-day, 
just  as  it  was  when  the  wisest  of  men  first  uttered  it,  that 
"  He  that  keepeth  the  law,  happy  is  he,"  and  it  might  have 
been  added  with  equal  truth,  "  He  that  breaketh  the  law, 
unhappy  is  he."  Happiness  in  its  true  sense  cannot  be  se- 
cured by  the  person  who  willfully  and  habitually  trans- 
gresses the  law  or  who  is  in  conflict  with  the  law. 

A  man  may  temporarily  satisfy  his  vanity,  he  may  enjoy 
momentary  triumphs,  he  may  taste  the  joy  of  social  con- 
quest, or  he  may  revel  in  sensual  pleasure,  ignoring  all  just 
laws;  but  none  of  these  indulgences  can  give  him  true  happi- 
ness. A  feeling  of  opposition  to  law  is  not  experienced  by  the 
person  whose  attitude  is  one  of  willing  acquiescence  in  it.  It 
is  only  when  a  man  is  in  conflict  with  the  law  that  he  feels  its 
presence  and  pressure,  and  is  restless,  rebellious,  and  un- 
happy because  of  its  requirements.  Therefore  every  person 
should  endeavor  to  understand  aright  the  principles  upon 
which  the  laws  are  founded,  that  he  may  see  for  himself  the 
justice  of  them,  and  may  take  pleasure  in  obeying  them. 

Immunity  from  pain  not  necessary  to  happiness.  Happi- 
ness does  not  necessarily  mean  freedom  from  suffering.  In 
fact,  the  truest  happiness  and  the  greatest  joy  often  come 
from  the  exercise  of  self-denial,  the  successful  conflict  with 
difficulties,  the  overcoming  of  great  temptations,  and  the 
patient  endurance  of  pain.  We  have  a  beautiful  example  of 
this  in  the  remarkable  life  and  writings  of  Charles  Lamb, 
whose  contributions  to  literature  should  be  knownn  to  every 
reader  of  these  pages.   He  has  been  described  as  one  of  the 


78  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

"  rarest,  truest,  kindest,  and  richest  friends  who  visits  us  in 
the  library."  With  his  kindly  humor,  his  quaint  philosophy, 
his  ready  sympathy,  his  tender  pathos,  he  furnishes  thought 
for  our  every  mood.  Yet  he  wrote  while  suffering  the  keenest 
disappointment  that  can  come  to  mortal  man,  and  when  his 
head  was  bowed  with  sorrow  and  his  eyes  were  dimmed  with 
tears.  We  are  deeply  indebted  to  him  for  the  pleasing  hours 
he  has  given  us  through  his  books;  but  even  more  are  we 
indebted  to  him  for  the  lesson  of  his  life,  for  an  example  of 
how  a  noble  soul  can  rise  above  disappointment  and  disaster, 
and  can  find  the  secret  of  happiness  and  calm  content. 

It  has  been  wisely  said  that  the  first  principle  of  a  practical 
philosophy  must  begin  with  the  reconciliation  of  happiness 
and  trouble.  If  life  is  a  training  school,  then  all  the  events 
of  life,  whether  they  bring  joy  or  sorrow,  have  a  part  in  the 
moulding  and  developing  of  character;  and  the  degree  of 
growth  which  a  person  may  attain  depends  upon  the  thor- 
oughness with  which  he  learns  the  lessons  which  these  events 
teach. 

There  are  times  when  duty  makes  such  stern  demands 
upon  a  person  that  to  obey  its  call  means  enduring  pain, 
suffering,  and  sometimes  even  death.  The  mother,  through 
the  well-established  laws  of  motherhood,  gives  up  for  the 
sake  of  her  child  social  enjoyment,  ease,  and  many  forms  of 
comfort  and  pleasure.  When  sickness  invades  her  home,  she 
gladly  gives  of  her  strength  and  energy  in  the  care  of  the 
afflicted  one.  In  the  midst  of  her  self-denial,  fatigue,  and 
anxiety,  she  experiences  a  happiness,  a  supreme  joy  which  is 
never  felt  by  the  mother  who  delegates  the  care  of  her  child 
to  another.  The  latter,  by  surrendering  or  evading  the  sacred 
duty  and  privilege  of  the  mother,  loses  some  of  the  sweetest 
hours  of  joy  and  happiness  that  can  come  to  human  beings. 

A  soldier  in  the  service  of  his  country  is  deprived  of  many 
comforts,  associations,  and  pleasures.  He  must  often  endure 


HAPPINESS  AS  RELATED  TO  EDUCATION       79 

privations,  hardships,  and  fatigue;  he  must  suffer  from  in- 
clement weather,  and  he  knows  that  he  may  be  obhged  even 
to  give  his  hfe  for  his  country.  In  spite  of  all  this,  and  even 
when  lonely,  homesick,  and  weary,  along  with  his  yearn- 
ing for  home,  he  feels  a  thrill  of  joy  in  the  consciousness  of 
the  sacrifice  that  he  is  making  for  his  country  —  a  joy  that  the 
man  who  stays  at  home  can  never  experience.  No  true  sol- 
dier, no  real  patriot,  ever  regrets  the  privations  or  the  pain 
which  he  endures  in  the  service  of  the  country  that  he  loves; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  he  rejoices  and  even  glories  in  the  sac- 
rifices which  he  makes,  even  when  that  service  causes  him 
the  keenest  physical  suffering,  mental  pain,  and  loneliness. 

Consecration  to  a  purpose  gives  joy.  It  is  the  joy  in  serv- 
ice for  humanity,  the  love  of  a  worthy  cause,  and  the  satis- 
faction and  happiness  that  accompanies  victory  over  difficul- 
ties in  the  performance  of  duty  that  make  heroes  of  a  great 
cause  bear  pain,  discomforts,  sneers,  persecution,  and  even 
death  in  its  service.  It  is  the  consecration  to  a  purpose  and 
the  anticipation  of  joy  in  achievement  that  enable  the  in- 
ventor to  labor  on  notwithstanding  discouragement,  ridicule, 
and  antagonism  in  the  construction  of  a  machine,  or  in 
the  working  out  of  an  idea  to  which  he  is  devoting  his  time, 
his  money,  and  all  the  powers  of  his  genius.  The  story  of 
Palissy,  who  invented  the  beautiful  glaze  on  pottery,  is  a 
familiar  illustration  of  this.  It  furnishes  a  most  striking 
example  of  how  devotion  to  a  purpose  and  the  belief  in  ulti- 
mate success  will  enable  a  man  to  toil  for  years  in  the  face 
of  opposition,  discouragement,  poverty,  sneers,  and  insults, 
with  a  consecration  that  is  almost  sublime.  This  deter- 
mined man  never  faltered  in  his  purpose  nor  in  his  efforts 
until,  after  many  long  years  and  countless  failures,  success 
at  last  crowned  his  toil  and  brought  to  him  that  joy  and 
happiness  which  is  the  reward  of  success  in  a  worthy  under- 
taking. 


80  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

'  Belief  in  a  cause  gives  sustaining  faith  and  joy.  It  was  the 
sustaining  power  of  joy  and  exultation  in  persecution  for  a 
righteous  cause  that  enabled  the  Christian  martyrs  to  en- 
dure imprisonment,  and  eVen  to  go  to  the  stake  with  smiles 
on  their  faces.  Such  were  Huss  the  German  reformer,  Ridley 
and  Latimer  the  English  martyrs,  and  hundreds  of  others 
who  have  been  burned  at  the  stake,  been  given  to  hungry 
lions,  or  put  to  death  in  other  cruel  ways  for  their  religion. 
It  was  this  same  exultation  and  joy  in  service  that  inspired 
the  great  religious  leader,  the  Apostle  Paul,  with  missionary 
zeal,  which  led  him  to  travel  over  land  and  sea  to  preach  the 
gospel  in  all  parts  of  the  then  kno^sTi  world.  His  steadfast- 
ness and  his  confidence  in  his  power  to  endure  to  the  end 
never  wavered,  even  though  he  knew  that  martyrdom  was 
before  him.  Near  the  close  of  his  ministry,  he  wrote  his  im- 
mortal declaration  regarding  the  hardships,  the  persecutions, 
and  the  imprisonments  which  he  had  suffered.  "  None  of 
these  things  move  me,  neither  count  I  my  life  dear  unto  my- 
self, so  that  I  might  finish  my  course  with  joy." 

Relation  of  education  to  happiness.  Since  the  ability  to 
secure  the  truest  and  best  joys  of  life  is  dependent  upon  an 
understanding  and  observance  of  law,  some  properly  directed 
study  of  the  rules  and  laws  that  govern  man  in  his  vari- 
ous relations  is  obligatory  upon  all  who  wish  to  secure  this 
much  desired  blessing.  In  this,  as  in  all  the  higher  aims  of 
man,  education  may  be  made  to  serve  the  desired  purpose 
by  giving  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  laws  of  life  and  of  the  satisfaction  and 
happiness  that  follow  their  cheerful  observance.  It  must 
be  apparent  to  all  who  have  given  the  subject  thoughtful 
consideration  that  the  purpose  and  plans  of  parents  and 
teachers  in  the  education  of  the  young  should  include  the 
understanding  and  attainment  of  happiness  in  its  highest 
sense.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  happiness  is  one  of  the  results 


HAPPINESS  AS  RELATED  TO  EDUCATION      81 

of  right  education,  and  therefore  every  scheme  of  education 
should  make  happiness  one  of  its  aims.  Since  happiness  is 
intended  for  every  one,  even  the  slowest  pupil  may  hope  to 
gain  it,  and  he  will  secure  it  just  to  the  extent  that  he  in- 
telligently strives  for  it.  It  is  therefore  the  duty  of  parents 
and  teachers  to  instruct  children  in  the  right  methods  of 
securing  it. 

In  youth,  the  habit-forming  period  of  life,  boys  and  girls 
should  be  given  the  opportunity  of  learning  the  established 
rules  and  laws  of  human  conduct  in  the  home,  in  the  school, 
in  the  church,  in  society,  at  play,  at  work,  and  in  the  perform- 
ance of  duty.  They  should  be  given  the  opportunity  also  to 
discover,  from  actual  observation  and  from  reading,  the 
working  of  these  laws  under  such  conditions  as  will  enable 
them  to  see  the  results  to  other  persons  of  the  cheerful  and 
ready  obedience  to  all  just  rules  and  laws.  Finally,  every  child 
should  be  encouraged  to  form  the  habit  of  ready  and  cheerful 
obedience  to  these  laws  himself;  for  in  the  formation  of 
such  habits  lies  the  certainty  of  his  enduring  happiness. 

Responsibility  of  parents  and  teachers.  Persons,  who  vio- 
late law  in  the  indulgence  of  their  love  of  pleasure  and  thus 
bring  upon  themselves  the  penalty  of  broken  law,  often  make 
the  excuse  that  they  did  not  know  the  law,  or  that  they  did 
not  understand  the  results  that  would  follow  the  breaking  of 
it.  If  such  violators  of  law  really  do  not  know  that  they  are 
breaking  law,  and  must  suffer  the  penalty  for  so  doing,  then 
the  fault  is  caused  by  ignorance;  and  some  one  is  to  blame 
for  this  ignorance.  It  may  be  that  his  parents,  his  teachers, 
or  he  himself  is  responsible  for  it.  If  it  be  the  parent  or  the 
teacher  who  has  failed  in  his  duty  to  give  the  child  the  nec- 
essary information,  as  is  often  the  case,  then  it  behooves 
these  older  persons  to  discharge  their  obligations  with  more 
care  and  thoroughness  toward  those  committed  to  their 
care  and  training.  They  should  instruct  their  young  charges 


82  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

not  only  regarding  the  laws  which  govern  the  indulgence  of 
the  love  of  pleasure;  but  they  should  teach  these  inexperi- 
enced persons  how  to  discriminate  between  those  pleasures 
which  are  wholesome  and  satisfying  in  the  true  sense  and 
those  which  give  only  momentary  delight  and  lead  to  regrets. 
If,  notwithstanding  the  instruction,  the  admonition,  and 
the  warning  of  parents  and  teachers,  some  young  persons,  in 
the  pursuit  of  pleasure  which  they  wrongly  think  will  bring 
them  happiness,  still  continue  to  follow  those  paths  which 
lead  to  misery  instead  of  taking  those  which  lead  in  the  end 
to  true  happiness,  then  their  instructors  should  not  be  held 
responsible.  Fortunately,  the  number  who  do  thus  persist 
in  taking  the  wrong  road,  although  having  a  knowledge  of 
the  consequences  of  such  a  course,  is  small  as  compared  to 
the  number  of  those  who  are  led  to  take  the  right  road.  This 
fact  should  encourage  teachers  in  their  endeavors  to  instruct 
their  pupils  in  the  observance  of  law  as  a  sure  means  of 
attaining  happiness.  When  it  is  remembered  that  all  may, 
if  they  will,  realize  the  true  aim  of  education  in  the  develop- 
ment of  character  and  secure  for  themselves  its  accompani- 
ment, true  happiness,  the  responsibility  that  rests  upon  the 
leaders  and  guides  of  the  young  is  the  more  apparent.  To 
meet  this  responsibility,  parents  and  teachers  must  under- 
stand the  true  aim  of  education  and  the  means  by  which  it 
is  to  be  attained.  While  not  neglecting  the  physical  and  in- 
tellectual development  of  those  under  their  care,  they  must 
give  more  attention  to  the  spiritual  development,  to  charac- 
ter-building. In  the  schools  as  well  as  in  the  home,  more 
thought  should  be  given  to  the  plus  element  in  education, 
the  character-forming  element.  When  this  is  done,  the  real 
aim  of  education  will  be  realized  in  the  production  of  young 
men  and  women  of  character  who  will  achieve  the  noblest 
life  purpose  and  win  for  themselves  success,  contentment, 
and  happiness. 


HAPPINESS  AS  RELATED  TO  EDUCATION       83 


SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Classroom  Management,  Bagley,  pp.  33-36. 

Education,  Thorndike,  pp.  19-21. 

Art  of  Education,  Howerth,  pp.  202-04. 

Physiology  and  the  Teacher,  Mucnsterberg,  pp.  67-68. 

Modem  Methods,  Boyer,  pp.  98-102. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Consider  whether  any  of  the  persons  whom  you  know  are  in  pursuit 
of  happiness.  Call  to  mind  some  individual  cases,  and  tell  by  what 
means  they  are  seeking  happiness. 

2.  Name  some  situations  in  which  you  have  been  particularly  happy, 
and  try  to  analyze  some  of  them  to  determine  the  reasons  for  your 
happiness. 

3.  Tell  whether  you  think  a  person  who  is  unhappy  at  a  certain  time 
could  deliberately  plan  to  be  happy  the  day  following.  Give  a  reason 
for  your  answer. 

4.  Is  happiness  a  condition  or  a  result?  Explain  your  reason  for  answer- 
ing as  you  do. 

5.  If  you  have  ever  gained  anything  you  desired  by  disobedience,  tell 
whether  it  gave  you  real  happiness.  Is  the  feeling  of  satisfaction 
which  might  follow  an  act  of  deception  to  a  parent  or  to  a  teacher  a 
feeling  of  happiness?  Explain  your  reason  for  your  opinion. 

6.  Think  of  some  of  the  happiest  people  that  you  know,  and  consider 
whether  they  are  rich  or  in  moderate  circumstances,  sick  or  well.  In 
each  case  name  some  of  the  reasons  for  the  happiness  of  these  persons. 
State  a  condition  or  a  situation  where  a  person  could  suffer  and  yet 
be  happy. 

7.  Consider  whether  you  promptly  and  willingly  obey  physical  laws, 
home  laws,  school  rules,  social  laws.  If  there  ever  is  resistance  on  your 
part  to  any  of  them,  explain  why.  Have  the  violations  of  any  of  these 
laws  brought  unhappiness  to  you,  and  if  so,  in  what  way? 

8.  Explain  why  habitual  disobedience  of  the  child  in  the  home  may  bring 
unhappiness  later  in  life.  Explain  why  a  teacher  who  does  not  insist 
upon  strict  obedience  on  the  part  of  his  pupils  may  do  them  lasting 
harm. 

9.  Discuss  the  following  statement:  Moral  training  and  happiness  begin 
with  obedience  and  end  with  —    1  Corinthians,  thirteenth  chapter. 

10.  Discuss  the  following  statement  made  by  a  missionary  as  he  was 
leaving  his  wife  and  children  for  a  six  years'  absence  in  China:  "Sac- 
riBce  is  always  an  opportunity  to  serve  others  instead  of  self.  1  am 
happy  in  my  sacrifice,  so-called,  or  rather  ia  service." 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Social  institutions  to  meet  social  needs.  The  various  social 
institutions  with  which  we  are  familiar  at  the  present  time 
have  been  evolved  and  developed  in  the  evolution  of  society 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  human  race.  Chief  among  these 
institutions  are  the  home,  the  church,  the  school,  and  the 
State.  Each  of  these  stands  in  a  particular  and  distinct  rela- 
tion to  society  as  a  whole  and  to  the  individuals  that  com- 
pose it.  Since  these  institutions  have  come  into  existence  in 
response  to  a  demand  for  means  for  meeting  specific  needs 
and  satisfying  the  hungers  of  man,  the  distinct  function  of 
each  is  fairly  well  established  and  understood.  As  civili- 
zation advanced  and  became  more  and  more  complex,  and 
consequently  made  greater  and  more  varied  demands  upon 
all  of  its  institutions,  these  from  time  to  time  were  modified 
and  their  functions  enlarged  in  order  to  adjust  them  to  the 
constantly  changing  and  growing  needs  and  demands  of 
society.  It  is  apparent  that  such  frequent  readjustment  of 
the  social  institutions  to  the  increasing  requirements  of  the 
complex  civilization  is  necessary  in  order  that  they  may 
efficiently  fulfill  the  functions  for  which  they  came  into  exist- 
ence; for  their  continuance  is  justified  only  so  long  as  they 
do  adequately  perform  these  functions. 

Simple  needs  of  early  civilization.  The  simple  civilization 
in  the  early  history  of  mankind,  with  its  primitive  home  and 
neighborhood  life,  made  few  demands  upon  the  individual 
and  upon  society.  Therefore  education,  the  education  of  the 
ii;idividual  and  his  preparation  for  his  place  in  the  civilization 
of  his  day,  was  simple  in  character  and  limited  to  knowledge 


THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL       85 

and  experience  in  but  few  departments  of  human  endeavor. 
The  child  could  usually  learn  by  direct  experience  in  his  home 
and  immediate  environment  all  that  it  was  necessary  for  him  to 
know  in  order  to  be  fitted  for  the  adult  life  of  his  day.  Therefore 
there  was  little  need  of  distinct  institutions  to  give  him  this 
preparation.  Through  observation  and  direct  association  in 
the  home,  the  boy  learned  his  father's  trade,  and  the  girl  ac- 
quired such  household  arts  as  her  mother  practiced.  Their 
mental  and  moral  equipment  for  life,  they  gained  mainly 
from  association  and  conversation  with  their  parents  and 
neighbors  and  from  the  church  in  their  neighborhood.  In 
those  early  days,  the  church  exercised  a  very  positive  in- 
fluence. Attendance  upon  its  services  was  compulsory, 
and  it  was  rigid  in  all  its  requirements. 

Vocational  training  in  early  civilization.  In  the  case  of  his 
vocational  preparation,  the  boy  acquired  a  knowledge  of  his 
father's  occupation  by  assisting  regularly  with  the  work 
from  his  childhood,  gradually  learning  through  actual  experi- 
ence every  phase  of  it.  This  training  enabled  him  to  engage 
in  the  vocation,  independently,  when  the  time  came  for  him 
to  take  his  place  as  a  provider.  In  cases  where  it  was  deemed 
advisable  for  him  to  learn  some  other  vocation  than  that 
followed  by  his  father,  he  usually  entered  the  workshop  of 
some  man  who  was  skilled  in  the  trade  which  he  wished  to 
learn.  There  he  acquired,  by  means  of  an  apprenticeship  of 
greater  or  less  duration,  according  to  the  vocation  to  be 
learned,  sufficient  knowledge  and  skill  to  enable  him  to  follow 
the  same  occupation  himself.  The  girl,  through  helping  her 
mother  with  the  household  tasks,  could  gain  such  knowledge 
and  experience  as  fitted  her  to  perform  her  household  duties 
and  tasks  later  when  she  would  have  a  home  of  her  own. 
Thus,  as  the  need  required,  each  generation,  in  turn,  assumed 
the  tasks  and  responsibilities  which  devolved  upon  it  in  the 
social  and  industrial  life  of  the  community.    In  most  in- 


86  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

stances,  these  boys  and  girls  had  been  born  and  had  re- 
ceived their  preparation  for  Hfe  in  the  community  in  which 
they  afterward  were  to  take  their  places  as  men  and  women; 
and  the  transition  from  childhood  to  adult  life  and  responsi- 
biUty  was  a  gradual  and  natural  one,  presenting  no  serious 
problems  and  making  no  great  changes  in  their  lives. 

Society  developed  slowly  in  the  earlier  days  of  the  world's 
history.  Therefore  all  the  demands  of  the  gradually  evolv- 
ing society  were  easily  provided  for  by  the  institutions 
which  kept  pace  with  the  social  progress.  Children  in  the 
main  continued  to  learn  the  occupations  of  their  parents  by 
direct  observation  and  experience,  or  they  entered  the  family 
of  some  patron  or  other  person  whose  vocation  they  preferred 
to  learn.  Through  the  close  association  of  the  boy  with  his 
father  or  some  other  man  with  whom  he  worked,  he  had  an 
opportunity  to  know  his  father  or  his  patron  at  the  daily  task 
and  to  learn  from  this  adult  person  many  important  lessons 
relating  to  life  and  conduct.  This  daily  companionship  with 
a  mature  mind  was  an  important  factor  in  the  training  and 
education  of  the  boy  of  an  earlier  day.  The  same  thing  was 
true  of  the  girl.  Through  her  close  association  with  her 
mother  in  the  performance  of  the  daily  household  tasks,  she 
unconsciously  learned  her  mother's  point  of  view  on  moral 
and  other  questions,  and  acquired  her  mother's  habits  and 
methods  of  thinking  as  well  as  of  work.  The  educative  value 
to  the  boys  and  girls  of  an  earlier  day  of  the  home  life  and 
the  almost  constant  association  with  their  parents  cannot  be 
overestimated.  If  this  fact  were  more  generally  understood 
by  the  parents  of  this  later  day,  they  would  endeavor  to  give 
more  time  to  their  children  in  the  home,  instead  of  relegat- 
ing so  many  of  their  parental  duties  to  the  school. 

Vocational  education  in  early  civilization  illustrated.  As 
an  example  of  the  manner  in  which  a  father  of  an  earlier  day 
gave  his  boy  an  industrial  training  and  educated  him  for 


THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL       87 

life's  duties,  the  case  of  a  village  weaver  may  be  cited.  This 
man  had  a  simple  home,  probably  consisting  of  the  house  and 
a  garden.  The  children,  as  soon  as  they  were  old  enough  to 
do  so,  helped  their  mother  with  the  housework,  assisted 
in  the  garden  and  with  the  care  of  the  cow,  the  chickens,  or 
such  domestic  animals  as  the  family  possessed.  Throughout 
the  day  they  had  the  opportunity  to  watch  their  father  at 
his  loom,  and  as  soon  as  they  had  gained  sufficient  knowledge 
from  observation  and  had  become  sujBSciently  skillful  in  the 
use  of  their  hands,  they  began  to  assist  him  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  wool,  the  flax,  or  other  materials  for  the  weaving, 
and  to  aid  him  with  such  other  phases  of  the  work  as  their 
developing  powers  and  skill  would  permit. 

Gradually  they  learned  how  to  perform  each  part  of  the 
work  connected  with  the  making  of  cloth ;  and  therefore  they 
were  able  to  take  up  the  work  themselves  when  it  became 
necessary  or  desirable  for  them  to  do  so.  They  were  not 
obliged  to  go  from  home  to  learn  a  trade;  for  they  had  almost 
unconsciously  acquired  one  from  the  daily  association  with 
their  father  in  the  home.  This  constant  companionship  with 
the  father  not  only  fitted  the  boy  for  his  industrial  life,  but 
it  afforded  him  the  opportunity  to  imbibe  his  father's  ideas 
and  beliefs  and  to  gather  the  information  upon  various  sub- 
jects which  the  father  in  his  turn  had  learned  from  his  father 
before  him  and  from  his  contact  with  people.  Thus,  when 
the  boy  reached  man's  estate,  he  was  equipped  to  take  his 
place  in  the  industrial  and  social  world  with  his  father's 
trade  and  with  such  information  and  knowledge  as  his  father 
possessed,  together  with  whatever  additional  knowledge  he 
might  have  gathered  from  his  own  contact  with  other  persons 
and  the  life  of  the  community  in  which  he  lived. 

Vocational  training  changed  by  modem  conditions.  The 
vocational  training  of  children  in  their  homes  by  direct  asso- 
ciation with  the  parent  is  now  in  the  case  of  most  vocations 


88  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

practically  a  thing  of  the  past.  Industrial  conditions  have 
been  greatly  changed  by  means  of  modern  invention  and 
machinery.  By  the  use  of  labor-saving  devices  work  now 
is  performed  by  large  companies  of  workers  working  to- 
gether in  factories  instead  of  by  individual  workers  laboring 
separately  in  the  home  or  smaller  shop.  At  the  present  time, 
for  example,  the  weaver,  instead  of  sitting  down  to  his  work 
at  his  own  home  loom  for  which  he  has  prepared  the  yarn 
and  other  materials,  hurries  away  from  his  home  at  an 
early  hour  in  the  morning  in  order  to  reach  the  factory. 
Here,  at  a  regular  time  and  signal,  he  and  all  the  workers 
take  their  places  at  the  particular  looms  assigned  to  them 
by  the  foreman,  whose  duty  it  is  to  apportion  the  work 
among  the  large  company  of  workers  and  see  that  each  per- 
forms his  task  properly.  The  weaver  is  no  longer  concerned 
with  the  preparation  of  his  materials  or  the  disposition  of 
the  cloth  after  it  is  woven.  His  task  is  merely  to  attend  to 
the  particular  loom  assigned  to  him,  which  is  propelled  by 
the  power  of  the  mighty  machinery  that  keeps  all  the  de- 
partments of  the  great  factory  in  motion.  When  he  leaves 
his  loom  with  the  closing  down  of  the  machinery  at  the  end 
of  the  day's  labor,  his  responsibility  is  over  until  he  takes 
his  place  again  the  following  day.  He  is,  in  fact,  a  part  of 
the  great  industrial  machinery  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
cloth. 

Under  this  new  order  of  things  the  weaver's  son  does 
not  know  his  father's  work  by  direct  observation,  nor  his 
father  at  work,  as  was  formerly  the  case.  Neither  does  he 
have  the  opportunity  to  watch  his  father  at  his  daily  occu- 
pation and  thereby  to  become  familiar  with  its  process,  nor 
to  ask  and  receive  answers  to  the  questions  relating  to  the 
work  and  other  matters.  In  fact,  he  usually  sees  compara- 
tively little  of  his  father,  for  the  latter  leaves  his  home  at 
an  early  hour  in  the  morning  and  returns  late  in  the  day. 


THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL       89 

Then  the  father  is  too  tired,  perhaps,  or  too  much  occu- 
pied with  other  matters,  to  converse  with  his  children. 
Each  day,  with  the  possible  exception  of  an  occasional  holi- 
day, is  a  repetition  of  the  preceding  one.  Thus  the  father 
has  little  time,  if  indeed  he  has  the  inclination,  to  talk 
with  his  children  about  his  daily  occupation,  or  to  impart 
to  them  such  information  and  knowledge  as  he  gathers  from 
day  to  day.  It  is  probable  that  the  machine-regulated 
workman  seldom  thinks  it  his  duty  to  inform  his  children 
of  his  views  and  feelings  upon  the  social  problems  of  the 
day  in  which  he  is  interested,  to  talk  or  to  read  to  them 
about  important  events,  or  to  explain  to  them  the  process 
of  reasoning  by  which  he  may  have  reached  his  conclusions 
upon  this  or  that  subject.  Therefore  it  often  happens  that 
the  father  has  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  the  care,  train- 
ing, and  instruction  of  his  children.  He  feels  that  his  duty 
is  p)erformed  when  he  provides  for  their  physical  needs 
by  furnishing  the  necessary  means  for  this  purpose.  Their 
mental  and  moral  training  as  well  as  their  vocational 
preparation  is  delegated  to  some  one  else.  The  mother, 
as  a  rule,  has  a  larger  share  in  this  work  of  preparing  the 
children  for  their  adult  place  in  life  than  has  the  father; 
but  even  she  usually  has  less  of  this  responsibility  than  the 
mothers  of  an  earlier  day.  As  a  result,  the  children  miss 
the  intimacy  and  close  association  with  their  parents,  par- 
ticularly the  father,  which  was  so  important  a  factor  in 
the  education  and  training  of  the  children  in  the  past.  This 
is  a  condition  in  our  modern  home  life  which  can  be  rem- 
edied only  by  the  parents  and  the  children  themselves.  The 
parents  can  do  their  part  by  learning  the  value  to  their  chil- 
dren of  the  personal  touch  and  by  making  a  determined 
effort  to  give  it,  even  at  the  sacrifice  of  some  other  things; 
and  the  children  can  do  theirs  by  learning  to  make  fewer 
economic  demands  upon  their  parents,  in  order  that  the 


90  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

latter  may  thereby  have  more  time  to  devote  to  living  with 
their  families. 

The  home  can  no  longer  provide  industrial  and  social 
training.  It  has  come  to  pass  that  the  industrial  education 
of  the  young  and  also  much  of  the  body  of  information 
which  they  need  in  order  to  prepare  themselves  for  their 
place  in  the  economic  and  social  life  of  the  day  has  to  be 
provided  by  some  means  outside  the  home.  With  the  steady 
development  of  civilization  and  the  consequent  social 
changes,  life  became  more  complex.  More  social  adjust- 
ments had  to  be  made  to  meet  the  growing  needs  of  a 
more  advanced  civilization.  There  were  more  things  to  be 
learned;  and  as  the  child  learned  relatively  much  less  than 
formerly  through  actual  experience  and  observation  from 
his  home  and  community  life,  some  other  means  had  to  be 
provided  to  meet  his  educational  needs.  Hence  a  new  social 
institution,  the  school,  was  evolved  and  developed  to  provide 
him  with  the  means  for  gaining  the  knowledge  and  the  experi- 
ences which  he  needed  for  adult  life,  but  which  he  could  not 
get  through  direct  experience. 

The  school  evolved  to  meet  growing  social  needs.  Inas- 
much as  the  modern  school  came  into  existence  to  meet  the 
needs  for  which  the  home  and  the  community  no  longer  pro- 
vided, the  elements  which  contribute  to  the  requirements  of 
these  needs  became  the  fundamental  concern  in  the  build- 
ing-up and  development  of  the  school.  From  the  nature 
of  the  social  institutions  and  the  constant  change  and 
development  which  civilization  is  undergoing,  the  needs 
of  society  are  variable  and  relative,  instead  of  positive 
and  absolute.  Consequently  the  school,  as  one  of  the  im- 
portant factors  in  solving  the  problem  of  the  needs  of 
society,  has  of  necessity  changed  and  developed  to  keep 
pace  with  the  ever-changing  civilization.  There  is  no  ques- 
tion before  society  to-day  of  greater  importance  than  that 


THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL       91 

of  making  the  school  in  reality,  as  it  is  in  theory,  the  insti- 
tution in  which  the  children  of  the  present  generation  may 
satisfy  the  social  needs  and  hungers  which  from  the  very 
nature  of  conditions  can  no  longer  be  satisfied  in  the  home, 
the  community,  or  the  church.  In  fact,  the  school  must  be 
made  such  an  educating  institution  if  the  masses  are  to  be 
equipped  for  their  places  in  this  great  complex  civilization 
of  the  twentieth  century;  for  there  is  no  other  single  insti- 
tution that  can  perform  this  task. 

School  should  supplement  work  of  the  home  and  other 
social  institutions.  Since  the  function  of  the  school  is  to 
supplement  the  work  of  the  home  and  other  social  institu- 
tions in  satisfying  the  needs  of  the  young  in  their  prepara- 
tion for  their  adult  places  in  society,  it  must  provide  cer- 
tain experiences,  and  give  needed  information  growing  out 
of  race  experience,  which  can  no  longer  be  had  in  the  home. 
It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  instruction  in  the  school  must 
be  directed  along  two  distinct  lines  of  effort  in  order  ade- 
quately to  satisfy  the  purpose  for  which  it  came  into  exist- 
ence. Desirable  facts  and  information  out  of  race  experi- 
ence must  be  taught,  and  concrete  exercises  in  these  race 
experiences  must  be  given  as  a  basis  for  gaining  the  required 
knowledge  of  the  civilization  of  which  they  are  a  part.  The 
facts,  or  body  of  knowledge  to  be  taught,  furnish  the  sub- 
ject-matter which,  combined  with  the  social,  industrial, 
and  religious  experiences,  makes  up  the  curriculum  of  the 
school. 

In  saying  that  the  instruction  in  the  school  is  directed 
along  two  distinct  lines  of  effort,  it  is  not  meant  that  these 
are  imrelated  efforts  with  unrelated  results  and  are  to  be 
treated  separately.  The  unity  of  purpose  for  which  all 
instruction  should  be  given  leads  to  a  close  relation  and 
harmony  between  the  presentation  and  treatment  of  the 
two  classes  of  instruction.   The  so-termed  "  culture  "  sub- 


92  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

jects  and  the  "  practical  "  subjects  in  the  school  curricu- 
lum should  not  be  taught  with  two  distinct  aims  in  view; 
for  in  every  exercise  in  the  daily  program  of  the  school, 
whether  the  subject  being  taught  is  the  presentation  of  the 
facts  of  race  experience  or  a  practical  exercise  in  the  appli- 
cation of  these  facts  to  industrial  problems,  the  ultimate 
aim  should  be  the  same.  Each  subject  presented  and  each 
exercise  given  should  be  made  to  contribute  to  the  child's 
real  growth  by  bringing  him  into  closer  and  more  perfect 
harmony  with  the  facts  and  the  spiritual  ideas  of  the  uni- 
verse. 

Duties  imposed  upon  the  school.  Along  with  the  natural 
duties  which  the  home  and  some  of  the  other  institutions 
of  society  have  delegated  to  the  school,  certain  tasks  have 
been  imposed  which  do  not  rightly  belong  to  it.  For  ex- 
ample, one  of  the  chief  functions  of  the  home  as  a  social 
institution  is  the  physical  welfare  of  its  members.  Therefore 
it  should  be  actively  concerned  with  anything  which  con- 
tributes to  the  physical  well-being  of  the  members  of  the 
family.  It  should  exercise  the  greatest  care  that  the  food, 
clothing,  and  all  the  matters  that  have  to  do  with  the 
health  and  vigor  of  the  members  of  the  household  should 
receive  proper  attention.  The  truth  is,  however,  that  in  a 
large  number  of  homes,  either  from  ignorance,  indifference, 
or  want  of  suflScient  means  to  defray  the  expense  of  medi- 
cal attendance,  these  matters  do  not  receive  the  considera- 
tion and  attention  which  should  be  given  to  them.  Because 
of  the  fact  that  the  home  is  neglectful  of  the  health  of  its 
children,  the  school  has  found  itself  seriously  handicapped 
in  the  discharge  of  its  particular  function.  It  has,  there- 
fore, been  forced  to  take  over  this  neglected  duty  of  the 
home  and  provide  for  the  physical  well-being  of  its  pui)ils 
in  order  that  they  may  be  in  condition  to  jx^rform  the  work 
of  the  school  and  derive  the  desired  benefit  therefrom. 


THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF  TIIE  SCHOOL       93 

Thus  the  school  has  been  obliged  to  add  the  medical  in- 
spection of  its  pupils  to  its  other  functions. 

Medical  inspection  of  pupils  in  schools.  Since  the  school 
has  added  to  its  duties  the  medical  inspection  of  its  pupils, 
it  has  been  found,  in  all  cases  where  investigations  have 
been  made,  that  the  health  of  a  large  proportion  of  the 
children  attending  school  is  defective  and  requires  the  at- 
tention of  a  physician.  Health  inspection  for  three  suc- 
cessive years  in  New  York  City  showed  that  seventy  per 
cent  of  the  children  in  the  public  schools  had  defective 
health,  and  in  many  other  cities  and  in  rural  districts  the 
percentage  was  even  higher.  Indeed,  it  was  found  that  the 
health  conditions  of  the  pupils  in  all  the  schools  where 
medical  examinations  were  made  were  so  alarming  and  the 
schools  were  so  seriously  handicapped  by  the  poor  physical 
condition  of  such  a  large  number  of  its  pupils,  that  it  was 
deemed  absolutely  necessary  for  the  school  to  add  to  its 
other  duties  the  regular  medical  inspection  of  its  pupils. 
As  a  result,  the  schools  in  the  cities  of  a  majority  of  the 
States  now  provide  for  the  medical  examination  of  their 
pupils,  and  the  movement  for  medical  inspection  is  being 
rapidly  extended  to  the  rural  schools.  Moreover,  many 
teachers'  training-schools  are  giving  practical  instruction 
in  rules  of  health,  in  order  that  teachers  may  more  intelli- 
gently look  after  the  physical  condition  of  their  pupils. 
It  will  be  noted  that  the  addition  to  the  duties  of  the  school 
in  the  care  of  the  health  of  its  pupils  is  made  primarily  on 
the  grounds  that  the  school  cannot  discharge  its  regular 
function  effectively  when  the  children  are  not  in  a  healthy 
condition;  and  therefore,  if  the  home  neglects  the  health 
of  the  children,  the  school  must  attend  to  it. 

Many  home  duties  relegated  to  the  school.  It  has  been 
shown  that,  in  consequence  of  the  neglect  by  the  home  of  the 
health  of  its  children  from  ignorance  or  indifference,  it  has 


94  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

become  necessary  for  the  school  to  add  to  its  recognized 
functions  certain  duties  relating  to  the  health  and  the  phys- 
ical condition  of  its  pupils.  Likewise  other  duties  of  the 
home,  such  as  the  inculcating  of  right  habits  of  speech  and 
conduct,  have  in  many  cases  been  assigned  to  the  school,  in 
part  or  altogether.  Any  one  who  desires  to  do  so  can  ex- 
tend the  list  of  legitimate  home  duties  that  have  been  added 
to  the  school  because  the  home  either  does  not  or  cannot 
properly  discharge  them.  In  view  of  the  large  number  of 
the  former  obligations  of  the  home  which  have  been  turned 
over  to  the  school,  it  is  sometimes  rather  difficult  to  draw 
the  line  just  where,  in  actual  practice,  the  function  of  the 
home  ceases  and  that  of  the  school  begins. 

Duties  of  church  and  community  imposed  upon  the 
school.  Similarly,  the  church  and  the  community  do  not 
at  the  present  time  perform  all  the  functions  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  child  for  adult  life  which  formerly  they  did. 
It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  enumerate  the  former  church 
and  community  duties  toward  the  child  which  these  in- 
stitutions no  longer  fulfill,  as  any  one  can  satisfy  himself 
upon  this  point  by  an  investigation  of  conditions  in  his  own 
locality.  As  a  result  of  the  failure  of  these  institutions  to 
perform  certain  of  their  legitimate  functions,  supplemen- 
tary institutions,  and  among  these  the  school,  have  come  into 
existence  to  assist  in  meeting  those  i)articular  spiritual  and 
social  needs  which  the  older  institutions  can  no  longer  com- 
pletely supply.  In  this  way  many  of  the  functions  which 
formerly  were  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  church  have  been 
transferred  to  the  school.  Similarly,  certain  needs  of  the 
child  which  in  a  simpler  civilization  were  satisfied  by  the 
community  life  and  effort  came  by  degrees  to  be  taken  over 
by  the  school. 

School  overburdened  with  work  of  other  institutions. 
Thus  the  school  came  in  the  course  of  time  to  be  regarded 


THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL       05 

as  the  best  institution  for  meeting  those  needs  of  the  child 
for  which  other  social  institutions  had  ceased  to  provide. 
Naturally,  this  has  led  to  the  school's  becoming  over- 
burdened with  a  multiplicity  of  tasks  and  duties  of  various 
kinds,  many  of  which  do  not  rightly  belong  to  it.  In  fact, 
the  school  has  wiUingly  assumed  so  many  of  the  duties  that 
have  been  neglected  or  could  not  well  be  performed  by 
other  social  institutions  that  it  has  come  to  be  considered 
by  many  persons  as  a  veritable  dumping  ground  for  the 
neglected  obligations  of  other  institutions.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  believed  that  the  school  should  adapt  itself  to 
the  changing  social  conditions  and  needs  and  take  over,  at 
least  temporarily,  the  work  of  the  other  institutions  whose 
neglect  and  inefficiency  is  hindering  the  work  of  the  school, 
with  the  understanding  that  it  will  pass  back  such  work 
to  these  institutions  as  soon  as  they  are  aroused  to  a  con- 
sciousness of  their  full  duty  and  are  able  to  perform  it. 

All  social  institutions  have  a  part  in  the  education  of  the 
child.  It  is  evident  that  not  the  school  alone,  but  the  home, 
the  church,  and  all  the  institutions  of  society  have  a  part 
in  the  education  of  the  child;  and  if  they  all  discharged 
their  duties  properly,  he  would  be  completely  equipped 
for  his  work  in  life.  In  the  early  civilization,  when  the  boy 
throughout  his  childhood  and  youth  could  associate  with 
his  father  and  assist  with  daily  occupations,  the  home  more 
fully  contributed  to  his  education  than  is  possible  under 
present  conditions.  The  vocational  changes  which  have 
been  brought  about  through  the  use  of  machinery  and  the 
subdivision  of  labor  among  large  groups  of  workers  in  mills 
and  factories,  and  through  the  extension  of  commerce  and  all 
departments  of  business  have  taken  people  more  and  more 
out  of  their  homes  into  the  larger  contact  with  the  commu- 
nity and  national  life.  As  a  result  of  these  changed  condi- 
tions and  the  constantly  increasing  educational  require- 


96  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

raents,  the  home  has  found  itself  unable  to  give  its  children 
the  necessary  education.  Therefore  each  of  the  other  social 
institutions  that  have  been  called  upon  to  assist  with  the 
task  should  do  its  part.  It  is  the  failure  of  these  institu- 
tions in  so  many  cases  to  do  this  that  has  laid  such  a  heavy 
burden  upon  the  school. 

Social  institutions  should  not  impose  their  duties  upon 
the  school.  The  willingness  of  the  school  to  assume  any 
task  that  has  for  its  aim  the  education  of  the  child  should 
not  be  made  the  excuse  for  other  institutions  to  impose  their 
rightful  duties  upon  it.  The  home,  the  church,  and  the 
community  should  each  consider  its  part  in  this  great  work 
of  educating  the  young,  not  only  as  a  sacred  responsibility, 
but  also  as  a  high  privilege  which  it  does  not  desire  to  dele- 
gate to  any  one.  It  is  in  these  institutions,  and  particularly 
in  the  home,  that  the  child  must  receive  the  basal  elements 
of  his  education  before  he  is  old  enough  to  go  to  school.  In 
the  home  are  consciously  or  unconsciously  sowed  the  seeds 
of  the  ideals  that  are  to  be  built  into  his  character  later  on. 
It  is  most  important,  then,  that  the  ideals,  thus  formed, 
should  be  of  a  kind  to  furnish  a  true  foundation  upon  which 
the  school  may  build  in  the  development  and  establishment 
of  character.  It  is  evident  that  the  home  has  its  peculiar 
responsibilities  with  regard  to  its  children,  and  the  tendency 
to  shift  these  responsibilities  over  to  the  school  should  not 
be  encouraged. 

The  school  voluntarily  assumes  duties  of  other  institu- 
tions. No  doubt,  it  is  true  that  the  school  is  in  a  measure 
to  blame  for  other  institutions  having  imposed  their  duties 
upon  it;  for  the  school  has  voluntarily  taken  upon  itself 
many  obligations  in  the  care  of  its  pupils  that  distinctly 
belong  to  the  duties  which  the  home  should  be  forced  to 
perform.  The  only  valid  reason  why  the  school  should  em- 
ploy physicians  to  examine  into  and  attend  to  the  physical 


THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL       97 

conditions  and  health  of  the  pupils  in  the  public  schools  is 
the  fact  that  in  so  many  cases  the  home  neglects  these 
matters.  The  only  excuse  for  expecting  the  school  to  pro- 
vide food  and  clothing  for  any  of  its  pupils  is  that  in  some 
particular  cases  children  are  seriously  handicapped  in  their 
school  work,  because  the  home  has  failed  to  furnish  these 
necessities. 

In  cases  where  the  school  finds  itself  handicapped  in  the 
fulfillment  of  its  legitimate  functions,  because  of  the  failure 
of  other  institutions,  it  must  of  necessity  endeavor  to  pro- 
duce right  conditions  for  the  efiicient  discharge  of  its  own 
function.  It  is  evident  that  the  school  cannot  properly 
fulfill  its  function  in  the  education  of  its  pupils  unless 
they  are  in  a  proper  physical  condition.  Hence,  when  the 
child  is  suffering  from  poor  health  or  some  physical  defect, 
such  as  defective  vision  or  hearing  that  interferes  with  his 
work  in  school,  and  the  home  does  not  attend  to  the  matter, 
the  school  must  do  so.  If  the  child  is  improperly  clothed 
because  of  poverty  in  the  home,  or  if  he  is  imperfectly 
nourished  for  the  same  reason,  the  school  must  provide  him 
with  proper  food  and  clothing  in  order  that  he  may  be  in 
the  right  physical  condition  to  receive  the  benefits  of  the 
school.  The  part  of  the  school  in  supplying  those  mental 
and  moral  needs  of  the  child  which  should  be  cared  for  by 
some  other  institution  need  not  be  discussed  at  this  point, 
as  the  duty  of  the  school  in  this  case  is  even  more  apparent 
than  in  the  correction  of  wrong  physical  conditions.  The 
preparation  of  the  child  for  vocational  usefulness  is  another 
duty  that  many  persons  would  lay  upon  the  school,  and 
this  will  be  considered  at  some  length  in  later  chapters. 

Distinct  function  of  the  school.  Notwithstanding  the 
number  and  variety  of  duties  that  are  laid  upon  the  school 
and  the  difference  of  opinion  regarding  its  legitimate  work, 
it  has  a  fairly  distinct,  though  complex,  function  from  a 


98  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACfflNG 

sociological  point  of  view.  This  has  already  been  com- 
mented upon  and  may  be  briefly  stated  as  the  furnishing  of 
the  child  with  the  race  facts  and  race  experiences  that  he 
must  have  in  order  to  rightly  prepare  him  for  his  place 
in  the  civilization  of  the  day,  when  this  information  and 
this  experience  is  not  already  provided  by  some  other  so- 
cial institution.  Parents,  boards  of  education,  and  teachers 
should  have  a  clear  understanding  of  this  function  of  the 
school.  Unless  these  persons  do  have  this  definite  and  clear 
conception  of  the  place  of  the  school  among  the  social  in- 
stitutions, the  needed  changes  and  improvements  in  the 
school  will  not  be  made  and  progress  in  it  will  be  slow,  if, 
indeed  anything  like  true  progress  can  be  expected. 

Those  who  direct  the  work  in  the  schools  and  those  who 
teach  in  them  should  have  sufficient  knowledge  of  sociology 
and  of  the  duties  of  the  existing  social  institutions  to  en- 
able them  to  comprehend  the  real  function  of  the  school 
as  a  social  organization.  Education  should  make  boys  and 
girls  socially  efficient;  that  is,  it  should  prepare  them  to 
take  their  places  in  their  various  spheres  in  life  and  perform 
their  parts  according  to  the  best  standards  of  the  insti- 
tutions that  make  up  human  society.  This  includes  home 
ideals  and  home  duties;  church  ideals  and  church  obliga- 
tions; state  standards  and  state  service;  vocational  stand- 
ards and  vocational  efficiency.  This  definition  of  social 
efficiency  with  what  it  embraces  is  simple  enough  to  be 
tinderstood  by  every  teacher  and  to  show  him  what  is  his 
true  relation,  as  an  instructor  of  the  young,  to  all  institu- 
tional life  and  effort. 

Important  race  facts  in  the  curriculum  of  the  school. 
The  race  facts  which  the  schools  are  expected  to  teach  are 
those  which  have  been  approved  by  civilization.  These 
have  been  culled  from  the  accumulated  experience  of 
scholars  and  scientists  in  all  ages,  and  have  been  classified 


THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL       99 

into  groups  or  fields  of  human  knowledge.  An  understand- 
ing of  these  world  and  time  gathered  facts  cannot  be  gained 
by  the  young  through  actual  experience  and  observation, 
but  must  be  acquired  through  a  study  of  the  recorded  ex- 
periences and  conclusions  of  the  countless  number  of  learned 
men  who  have  devoted  their  lives  to  the  discovery  and  the 
classifications  of  these  truths.  Inasmuch  as  this  great  body 
of  facts  is  an  epitome  of  the  present  civilization,  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  the  youth  of  the  present  day  be 
taught,  at  least,  the  elements  of  it,  in  order  that  they  may 
understand  the  industrial  and  social  conditions  of  the  civili- 
zation in  which  they  live. 

This  body  of  necessary  information  which  the  child  can- 
not get  from  direct  experience  has  become  so  great  and  so 
varied,  because  of  the  additions  that  have  been  made  to 
it  from  time  to  time,  that  neither  the  home  nor  any  other 
institution  except  the  school  can  supply  it.  Hence  it  must 
be  taught  in  the  school  and  by  teachers  who  not  only  com- 
prehend present  civilization  and  its  needs,  but  who  also 
understand  its  relation  to  life  and  know  its  cultural  value 
in  the  preparation  of  the  young  for  their  place  in  society. 
The  teacher  must  have  a  clear  conception  of  the  function 
of  the  school  as  an  institution  of  society  and  also  of  his 
responsibility  as  an  instructor,  since  it  is  through  his  efforts 
that  this  function  is  to  be  realized.  He  must  also  recognize 
the  fact  that  his  work  is  largely  supplementary  to  that  of 
the  other  social  institutions,  and  that,  therefore,  it  must 
partake  somewhat  of  the  characteristics  of  them  all. 

Test  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  curriculum.  This  so- 
ciological point  of  view  of  the  function  of  the  school  affords 
a  reasonable  basis  for  determining  the  subject-matter  of 
the  curriculum.  Boys  and  girls  as  social  beings  must  be 
fitted  for  the  places  in  the  institutional  life  which  they  are 
soon  to  occupy  as  men  and  women;  and  in  order  that  they 


100  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

may  be  so  fitted  and  be  ready  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 
various  departments  of  society,  the  school  must  assist  them 
in  making  the  proper  preparation.  If  the  subject-matter  of 
the  school  is  related  to  the  present  institutional  life  and  is 
taught  in  such  a  way  as  to  contribute  to  the  betterment  of 
society  by  leading  the  young  to  strive  for  its  loftiest  ideals, 
then  it  has  a  rightful  place  in  the  curriculum.  If,  however, 
it  does  not  contribute  to  the  desirable  growth  of  the  young 
and  therefore  to  the  good  of  society,  it  should  not  be  given 
a  place  in  the  curriculum.  This  naturally  presupposes  that 
the  subject-matter  of  the  school  must  be  determined  by  the 
civilization  which  it  interprets,  by  the  needs  of  the  civili- 
zation of  to-day,  not  by  the  practices,  the  conventions,  and 
the  needs  of  the  past.  This  law  should  be  more  gener- 
ally recognized  by  educational  leaders  than  it  is;  and  the 
courses  of  study  in  use  in  our  schools  should  be  so  modified 
that  they  will  better  interpret  the  institutional  life  and 
needs  of  the  present.  When  this  is  done,  the  school  will 
more  completely  perform  the  function  for  which  it  came 
into  existence. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Social  Psychology,  Ross,  pp.  231-33. 

Types  of  Teaching,  Earhart,  pp.  22-26,  138-43,  150-63. 

Education,  Thorndike,  p.  161. 

Lectures  on  Teaching,  Fitch,  pp.  51-53. 

Education  and  Utility,  Bagley,  pp.  96,  166-79. 

The  Mind  and  Its  Education,  Belts,  pp.  56-67. 

Art  oj  Education,  Howerth,  pp.  136-43. 

Brief  Course  in  Teaching  Process,  Strayer,  pp.  12-15. 

Changing  Conceptions  of  Education,  Cubberley. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Name  some  things  that  you  have  in  your  home,  that  were  not  in 
homes  five  hundred  years  ago.  Name  some  things  in  your  commu- 
nity that  were  not  known  five  himdred  years  ago.  Name  some  reasons 
why  these  things  have  come  into  existence. 


THE  SOCIAL  FUNCTION  OF  THE  SCHOOL     101 

2.  Name  some  new  thinps  and  some  new  improvements  that  are  being 
sought  by  men  to-day. 

5.  Look  up  the  history  of  the  ancient  Greek  schools  and  tell:  (a)  Who 
were  the  teachers,  men  or  women,  —  young  or  old?  {i)  Who  were  the 
pupils,  boys  or  girls?    (c)  What  subjects  were  studied  in  the  schools? 

Contrast  the  conditions  in  the  ancient  Greek  schools  with  those  in 
the  schools  to-day. 
4.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  terms,  "Evolution  of  the  church," 
"Evolution  of  the  home,"  "Evolution  of  the  school"? 

6.  What  vocations  of  the  present  day  enable  the  boy  to  know  his 
father's  work  and  his  father  at  work?  Name  some  vocation  of  men 
that  their  sons  have  no  opportunity  of  knowing,  and  explain  why 
this  is  so. 

6.  Write  out  in  detail  your  idea  of  what  a  school  should  be. 

7.  What  organizations  have  been  formed  during  the  past  one  hundred 
years  to  aid  the  church,  and  the  home?   Discuss  the  work  of  each. 

8.  Name  all  the  organizations  in  your  community  that  have  been  formed 
for  human  and  social  welfare.  The  organizations  for  men,  the  organi- 
zations for  women,  the  organizations  for  both  men  and  women. 

9.  Name  some  of  your  early  experiences  that  were  later  interpreted  for 
you  by  means  of  your  studies  in  school. 

10.  "The  schools  should  teach  those  things  needed  for  adult  life  which 
other  institutions  in  the  community  do  not  teach." 

In  the  light  of  this  statement  tell  whether  you  think  that:  — 
(a)  All  schools  should  teach  the  same  subjects;  (6)  that  girls  should 
study  the  same  subjects  as  boys  and  give  reasons  for  your  opinion 
in  each  case. 

Write  a  list  of  subjects  that  you  think  should  be  taught  in  all  schools. 

11.  Explain  what  you  understand  (a)  by  the  term,  "social  institution"; 
(6)  by  the  phrase,  "The  welfare  of  society";  (c)  by  the  statement, 
"Man  is  a  social  being."  Discuss  briefly  each  of  these  topics. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  TO  THE  STATE 

Purpose  of  chapter  stated.  In  the  preceding  chapter,  it 
was  shown  that  the  school  as  a  social  institution  came  into 
existence  to  help  the  home  and  the  other  institutions  that 
were  concerned  with  the  problems  of  child  welfare  and  edu- 
cation, in  the  task  of  preparing  the  young  for  their  adult 
place  in  society.  The  more  important  of  the  recognized 
functions  of  the  institution,  thus  established  to  satisfy  a 
great  social  need,  were  also  briefly  outlined.  This  discus- 
sion had  reference  more  particularly  to  the  value  of  the 
school  to  the  child  than  to  its  function  in  a  democracy  like 
our  own  or  to  its  obligations  for  the  fulfillment  of  its 
function  to  the  State  and  the  Nation  to  which  it  owes  its 
existence.  In  this  chapter  some  of  the  obligations  of  the 
school  to  society  at  large  and  its  relation  to  the  State  will 
be  enumerated,  and  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  school 
should  fulfill  these  obligations  will  be  discussed.  In  a  dem- 
ocracy like  ours,  which  has  undertaken  to  place  educational 
advantages  within  the  reach  of  all,  the  obligations  of  the 
school  to  the  State  are  particularly  binding;  and,  therefore, 
it  is  but  reasonable  that  the  school  should  be  expected  to 
educate  the  young  of  the  land  for  eSicient  citizenship. 

The  American  free-school  system.  All  experiments  with 
democratic  government  have  proved  that  the  institutions 
of  liberty  and  equality  can  be  preserved  only  through  the 
intelligence  of  all  the  people.  Every  attempt  to  establish 
and  maintain  self-government  where  there  was  a  state  of 
general  ignorance  among  the  masses  has  proved  a  dismal 
failure.   Nothing  shows  the  wisdom  of  the  founders  of  our 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  STATE  103 

Republic  more  clearly  than  their  attitude  toward  educa- 
tion and  the  problem  of  enlightening  the  masses.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  they  clearly  foresaw  the  relation  of  education  to 
the  welfare  and  stability  of  the  Nation  which  they  founded. 
Washington,  Jefferson,  and  their  associates  in  the  gigan- 
tic undertaking  of  establishing  a  new  nation  upon  the  prin- 
ciples of  liberty  and  equality,  understood  the  necessity 
of  educating  all  the  people  of  the  land  for  self-govern- 
ment in  order  that  the  new  nation  might  attain  and  main- 
tain the  ideals  upon  which  and  for  which  it  had  been 
founded.  Washington  clearly  understood  that  upon  the  en- 
lightenment of  the  masses  depended  the  success  and  future 
greatness  of  the  new  Republic,  as  his  many  utterances  upon 
the  subject  show.  He  endeavored  at  every  opportunity  to 
impress  upon  his  countrymen  the  necessity  of  universal 
education.  His  last  official  message  to  the  Nation  con- 
tained an  eloquent  appeal  for  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  schools  that  were  based  upon  a  principle  which 
is  as  important  to-day  as  when  he  first  issued  his  call.  He 
urged  his  countrymen  to  "  promote  as  an  object  of  primary 
importance,  institutions  for  the  general  diffusion  of  knowl- 
edge; for,"  he  said,  "  in  proportion  as  the  structure  of  gov- 
ernment gives  force  to  public  opinion,  it  is  essential  that 
public  opinion  should  be  enlightened." 

The  appeals  and  efforts  of  the  wise  leaders  of  the  early 
days  of  our  national  life  and  of  all  the  far-sighted  advo- 
cates of  free  and  universal  education  were  not  without  re- 
sponse from  the  people.  As  the  result  of  the  agitation  for 
the  education  of  all  the  people,  the  conviction  became  gen- 
eral that  universal  education  was  essential  for  the  stability 
of  the  democracy,  and  steps  were  taken  to  provide  for  the 
establishment  of  a  school  system  that  would  make  such 
education  possible.  In  order  that  this  new  nation  might  be 
a  government  of  an  enlightened  people,  large  tracts  of  pub- 


104  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACfflNG 

lie  lands  were  set  aside  for  the  purpose  of  providing  funds 
to  found  and  maintain  common  schools,  state  normal 
schools,  state  universities,  and  various  other  free  institu- 
tions of  learning. 

The  American  free-school  system,  which  grew  out  of  the 
combined  efforts  of  all  the  agencies  for  universal  education, 
is  one  of  the  most  important  and  most  significant  results  of 
the  long  struggle  of  liberty  and  enlightenment  against  ig- 
norance and  oppression.  It  has  not  yet  reached  the  high 
development  which  its  advocates  expect  it  to  attain,  and  it 
is  not  without  many  flaws;  but  it  is  the  grandest  effort  that 
has  yet  been  made  by  any  nation  for  the  unifying,  nation- 
alizing, and  educating  of  a  great  people  of  diverse  origin, 
attainments,  and  interests.  ' 

Unity  through  common  knowledge  of  race  facts.  A  com- 
mon knowledge  and  acceptance  of  race  facts  and  informa- 
tion gives  a  certain  degree  of  oneness  or  unity  of  feeling  to 
those  who  possess  it.  This  is  a  desirable  condition  to  be 
secured  among  people  belonging  to  the  same  country  and 
holding  allegiance  to  the  same  government,  and  it  is  through 
the  instruction  given  in  the  public  schools  that  it  may  be 
attained.  Primarily  the  schools  of  the  land  provide  the 
means  through  which  the  children  of  the  West,  the  children 
of  the  East,  the  children  of  the  North,  and  the  children  of 
the  South  may  acquire  such  a  knowledge  and  understand- 
ing of  the  facts,  gathered  from  the  various  sources  of  classi- 
fied knowledge,  as  will  enable  them  to  take  their  places 
later  among  their  fellows  in  the  social  and  business  world. 
These  are  the  facts  that  have  been  evolved  out  of  race  ex- 
periences; and,  therefore,  they  are  fundamental  in  the  body 
of  information  which  all  classes  of  people  should  possess. 
They  have  been  drawn  from  the  fields  of  mathematics, 
science,  history,  literature,  art,  and  other  departments  of 
practical  knowledge.    Since  they  have  been  taken  from  all 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  STATE  105 

these  departments  of  knowledge,  they  represent  the  useful 
information  and  principles  that  one  requires  in  everyday 
life.  Hence  every  individual  should  acquire  as  much  of 
this  practical  knowledge  as  he  can.  It  is  the  common  pos- 
session of  this  body  of  knowledge  out  of  universal  race 
experiences,  that  gives  the  unity  of  feeling  and  community 
of  interest  among  the  citizens  that  would  be  impossible 
without  it.  As  a  result  of  a  common  knowledge  of  these 
world  facts,  it  is  possible  for  the  people  that  come  to  our 
shores  from  the  various  countries  of  Europe  to  have  busi- 
ness relations  and  simple  social  relations  upon  something 
like  a  common  ground.  They  all  possess  the  same  elemental, 
basal  knowledge  as  a  starting-point  for  their  intercourse. 
All  civilized  peoples  have  practically  agreed  upon  the  simple, 
fundamental  facts  and  body  of  information  to  be  imparted 
to  their  children  and  it  is  the  common  knowledge  thus 
gained  which  "  makes  the  whole  world  kin."  The  unifying 
and  civilizing  value  of  this  body  of  universal  knowledge  to 
those  who  possess  it  should  be  better  understood  by  those 
persons  who  are  concerned  with  the  education  of  the  young 
and  also  by  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  task  of  unifying 
into  a  single  nation  the  different  races  represented  in  our 
commonwealth . 

Schools  a  nationalizing  force.  The  schools  of  any  country, 
besides  being  a  unifying  agency,  are  a  nationalizing  force, 
as  well.  This  is  the  direct  result  of  instruction  that  tends  to 
produce  national  feeling,  and  the  use  and  value  of  such  in- 
struction should  not  be  overlooked.  Geography,  history, 
and  general  information  regarding  passing  events,  all  fur- 
nish much  material  which,  if  properly  used,  becomes  a  po- 
tent agency  in  producing  national  feeling.  For  example, 
in  our  own  schools  the  same  general  information  is  given 
regarding  the  agricultural,  industrial,  and  commercial 
wealth  of  our  country.  The  extent  of  her  plains  and  forests. 


106  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACfflNG 

the  size  and  grandeur  of  her  mountains,  the  number  and 
commercial  value  of  her  great  rivers  and  lakes,  the  num- 
ber, size,  and  importance  of  her  cities,  are  all  common  sub- 
jects for  study.  This  general  body  of  information  about  our 
country  that  is  taught  in  all  our  schools,  besides  unify- 
ing knowledge,  creates,  or  should  create  if  properly  taught, 
a  universal  pride  of  country,  and  forges  a  bond  between 
those  sharing  it.  Such  instruction  has  a  positive  unifying 
and  nationalizing  value. 

Because  of  the  nationalizing  value  of  a  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  our  country  and  the  story  of  the  achievements  of 
our  countrymen,  this  study  should  occupy  an  important 
place  in  the  course  of  study  in  all  our  schools  and  in  all 
grades.  By  adapting  it  to  the  age  and  advancement  of 
pupils,  it  may  be  taught  through  story  in  even  the  primary 
grades,  although  it  may  not  be  treated  as  formal  history. 
The  facts  relating  to  the  early  settlement  of  the  country,  to 
the  courage  and  perseverance  of  the  colonists,  to  the  heroism 
of  the  early  patriots,  and  to  the  wisdom  of  the  founders  of 
the  Nation  are  all  valuable  subjects  of  study.  A  knowledge 
of  this  common  inheritance  in  the  character  and  deeds  of 
our  forefathers  tends  to  produce  a  justifiable  pride  of  coun- 
try and  a  loyalty  to  her  institutions  that  would  not  be  pos- 
sible if  a  state  of  general  ignorance  prevailed  regarding 
these  matters.  The  nationalizing  value  of  the  instruction 
in  our  schools  is  not  limited  to  the  children  of  native  paren- 
tage, but  extends  to  the  children  of  foreign-born  parents. 
In  fact,  its  value  to  the  latter  is  particularly  marked,  for  to 
them  our  national  inheritance  of  country,  history,  and 
achievement  comes  as  a  splendid  revelation  and  a  much- 
prized  gift.  Thus  it  is  apparent  that  the  schools  of  our 
country  have  become  in  a  double  sense  its  greatest  national- 
izing force  and  the  surest  means  of  making  each  new  gen- 
eration of  foreigners  an  integral  part  of  our  body  politic. 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  STATE  107 

A  homogeneous  people  one  result  of  the  public  school. 
The  important  task  of  making  Americans  of  the  children 
of  the  various  nationalities  that  mingle  in  the  schools,  of 
fitting  them  for  American  citizenship,  belongs  peculiarly 
to  the  American  public  school.  It  is  the  more  urgent  that 
this  particular  function  of  our  schools  should  receive  careful 
attention  for  the  reason  that  there  is  no  other  institution 
that  can  do  it  so  effectively  as  the  school.  Many  of  the 
children  of  foreign  birth  or  parentage  come  from  homes  in 
which  the  English  language  is  not  even  spoken  and  where 
the  traditions  are  all  of  a  foreign  country  having  different 
political,  social,  and  industrial  conditions  from  those  in  our 
own.  Hence  such  children  must  acquire  all  their  knowledge 
of  American  history,  government,  and  institutions  in  the 
school.  The  problem  of  the  school  in  one  of  our  cities, 
having  a  mixed  population  of  native  Americans  and  for- 
eigners, is  very  unlike  that  in  countries  where  the  people 
and  the  children  are  natives  of  that  country  and  have  the 
same  history  and  the  same  traditions. 

Training  foreign  children  for  American  citizenship.  A 
person  cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  importance  of 
this  peculiar  problem  of  training  foreign  children  for  Ameri- 
can citizenship,  if  he  will  give  a  little  consideration  to  the 
conditions  that  exist  in  our  country,  as  contrasted  with  those 
which  exist  in  countries  that  do  not  have  this  problem  of 
making  a  homogeneous  people  from  a  mixed  population 
representing  nearly  all  the  nations  of  the  earth.  The  author 
was  interested,  during  a  visit  in  Paris,  in  noting  the  fact 
that  the  men  and  women  who  were  employed  in  the  various 
occupations  were  practically  all  native  French.  The  com- 
mon laborers  in  the  street  were  Frenchmen;  the  hack-drivers 
and  the  chauffeurs  were  Frenchmen ;  the  small  shopkeepers, 
as  well  as  the  merchants  of  the  larger  establishments  were 
Frenchmen;  the  policemen,  like  the  higher  officials  of  the 


108  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

city,  were  all  native  sons  of  France.  All  these  people  have 
the  same  traditions,  the  same  history,  the  same  heroes,  the 
same  songs,  the  same  art.  Hence  they  make  a  homogeneous 
people.  Their  common  heritage  has  made  them  so,  for  it 
has  given  them  the  same  national  ideals  and  the  same 
patriotism. 

A  very  different  condition  exists  in  our  large  cities  where 
many  different  nations  are  represented  in  the  various  occu- 
pations. In  New  York,  for  example,  one  would  find  that 
the  excavators  and  other  laborers  in  the  street  were  in  the 
main  Italians,  the  fruit-venders  Greeks,  the  cab-drivers  and 
the  policemen  generally  Irish,  the  small  shopkeepers  fre- 
quently Germans,  the  tradesmen  and  the  employees  in  the 
mills  and  the  factories  generally  of  foreign  birth.  Thus, 
through  all  the  departments  of  labor  a  large  number  of  per- 
sons of  various  nationalities  would  be  found.  These  people 
do  not  have  our  history  and  our  traditions,  neither  do  they 
have  our  inheritance  of  heroes  and  of  patriotism.  They  do 
not  have  our  national  ideals,  for  they  were  not  born  to 
these  inheritances.  Their  love  and  their  allegiance  are 
divided  among  many  nations  on  the  other  side  of  the  sea. 
They  do  not  have  our  national  ideals  and  therefore  do  not 
mingle  with  native  Americans  in  making  a  homogeneous 
people.  Hence  the  question  confronts  our  nation  of  how 
best  to  take  this  heterogeneous  population  and  make  of  it 
a  homogeneous  people. 

Conditions  necessary  for  nationalizing  children  in  schools. 
Various  nationalizing  forces  aid  in  the  solution  of  this  prob- 
lem, but  its  accomplisliment  rests  largely  upon  the  public 
school,  as  it  is  the  only  institution  that  can  reach  and  in- 
fluence all  these  people.  In  the  school,  the  children  of  for- 
eign parents  mingle  with  children  of  native  Americans  in 
the  study  of  the  history  of  the  country  and  her  achieve- 
ments; they  learn  of  her  industries,  of  her  productions,  and 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  STATE  109 

of  her  resources.  They  hear  of  the  deeds  of  her  heroes  and 
of  her  Christian  service  to  the  world.  They  learn  her  na- 
tional songs  and  they  acquire  her  national  ideals.  In  this 
way  national  spirit  is  fostered  and  the  children  of  foreign 
parents,  side  by  side  with  those  of  native  birth,  develop 
into  American  citizens.  In  order,  however,  that  the  school 
may  achieve  this  desired  result,  two  conditions  are  neces- 
sary: first,  the  school  must  see  that  the  necessary  teaching 
is  given;  and  second,  children  must  remain  in  school  long 
enough  to  acquire  this  nationalizing  knowledge. 

Right  of  the  State  to  require  nationalizing  instruction. 
The  right  of  the  State  to  require  the  school  to  give  this  in- 
struction cannot  be  questioned,  for,  since  the  school  is 
maintained  by  the  State  for  its  own  preservation,  it  may 
reasonably  expect  the  school  to  consider  the  welfare  of  the 
State.  Moreover,  the  State  should  have  the  privilege  of 
determining  the  kind  of  instruction  that  will  contribute  to 
this  end  and  of  compelling  the  attendance  of  children  in  the 
schools  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  receive  it.  This 
twofold  prerogative  of  the  State  regarding  the  education  of 
the  masses  is  now  generally  recognized;  for  it  is  obvious  to 
all  well-informed  persons,  as  it  was  to  the  founders  of  the 
public-school  system,  that  the  perpetuation  and  welfare 
of  the  State  depend  upon  the  general  intelligence  of  its 
citizens.  Since  it  has  been  proved  again  and  again  that  a 
popular  government  cannot  long  exist  without  popular 
education,  it  rests  upon  the  State,  not  only  as  a  duty,  but 
as  the  surest  means  of  self-preservation,  to  require  the 
schools  to  educate  the  children  of  our  mixed  population 
for  efficient  American  citizenship. 

The  school  fosters  patriotism.  The  public  school  as  a 
democratic  institution  is  practically  free  from  social  lines, 
and  its  children  from  the  various  walks  of  life  mingle  freely 
upon  a  plane  of  equality.  They  have  the  same  inheritance 


110  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

in  her  statesmen  and  her  patriots,  of  whom  they  leam. 
They  sing  together  the  songs  of  the  country,  they  learn 
the  same  stories  of  her  early  struggles  and  triumphs  over 
diflBculties,  of  the  gro^v'th  of  her  strength  and  power,  of  her 
advance  from  the  humble  position  of  a  new  and  unrecog- 
nized government  to  an  important  place  among  the  great 
nations  of  the  world.  Their  love  and  pride  of  country  is 
further  aroused  and  fostered  through  a  knowledge  of  the 
principles  and  ideals  upon  which  our  national  life  is  founded. 
The  resourceful  teacher  will  make  these  facts  the  means  of 
instilling  love  of  country  and  the  ideals  of  patriotism  in  the 
minds  of  his  pupils;  and  the  teacher  who  fails  to  make  use 
of  the  opportunities  thus  offered  fails  to  fulfill  one  of  the 
most  important  functions  of  the  school.  Every  teacher 
should  be  careful  to  include,  as  one  of  the  most  important 
features  of  his  teaching,  those  facts  and  ideals  which  in- 
still patriotism  in  the  minds  of  the  young.  Moreover,  all 
teachers  should  be  more  impressed  than  is  generally  the 
case  with  the  importance  of  training  the  young  for  their 
duties  as  future  citizens.  If  teachers  did  more  fully  under- 
stand their  part  in  this  training,  they  would  give  more 
attention  to  the  use  of  history,  geography,  and  other  sub- 
jects of  the  curriculum  for  arousing  feelings  of  patriotism 
and  love  of  country  in  the  young  hearts,  and  would  not  waste 
so  much  of  the  time  of  their  pupils  in  the  memorizing  of  un- 
related historical  and  other  facts. 

The  school  standardizes  knowledge.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
school,  as  the  agent  of  society  for  the  education  of  the 
young,  to  take  the  world  facts  that  are  to  be  taught  and 
relate  them  in  such  a  way  to  the  child's  previous  knowledge 
and  experiences  that  he  may  be  able  to  interpret  the  new 
by  means  of  the  knowledge  which  he  already  possesses. 
It  is  the  work  of  the  school  also  to  make  use  of  all  the  in- 
formation which  the  pupils  have  previously  gained  by  per- 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  STATE  111 

sonal  experience,  observation,  or  by  any  other  means,  in 
such  a  way  that  its  relation  to  world  experiences  may  be 
made  clear  to  them.  They  will  thus  learn  to  interpret,  de- 
fine, and  express  this  previous  knowledge  in  terms  used  in 
the  academic  world.  By  this  means  the  individual's  knowl- 
edge is  standardized.  An  illustration  may  make  more  clear 
the  way  in  which  the  child's  previous  information  and  ex- 
perience may  be  related  to  world  facts  and  knowledge. 

Means  of  standardizing  knowledge  illustrated.  A  boy 
who  has  spent  his  childhood  and  early  youth  upon  a  farm, 
which  he  has  helped  to  clear  and  cultivate,  gathers  certain 
facts  and  gains  a  body  of  information  from  his  experiences 
and  observations.  As  a  matter  of  course,  he  learns  to  use  a 
handspike  in  prying  up  or  lifting  heavy  articles,  such  as 
logs,  stones,  and  like  objects.  He  learns  how  to  place  the 
bait  under  the  handspike  according  to  the  weight  of  the 
body  to  be  lifted  and  the  amount  of  resistance  to  be  over- 
come. He  learns  that  in  using  a  hoe  or  a  pitchfork,  if  he 
places  one  hand  near  the  lower  end  of  the  handle,  the 
strength  exerted  becomes  more  effective.  He  discovers  also 
that  when  a  pump  handle  is  difficult  to  move,  he  can  move  it 
more  readily  and  easily  by  placing  his  hands  near  the  end 
distant  from  the  pump.  In  these,  and  in  other  ways,  while 
performing  his  daily  tasks,  he  correctly  and  effectively 
applies  the  principle  of  the  lever.  He  does  this,  however, 
without  having  any  scientific  knowledge  of  the  principles 
involved  or  even  knowing  the  names  by  which  they  are 
designated  in  the  world  of  science. 

If  this  boy  should  study  physics  later,  the  knowledge  of 
these  scientific  principles  which  he  has  thus  unconsciously 
acquired  through  experience,  would  be  translated  into  the 
language  of  science.  The  handspike  and  the  bait,  in  the 
one  case,  would  become  the  lever  and  the  fulcrum,  resjiec- 
tively.   The  hoe  and  the  pitchfork  in  the  other  case  would 


112  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

become  the  lever,  and  one  of  his  hands  would  serve  as  the 
fulcrum.  With  the  ability  which  he  has  thus  gained  to 
apply  his  experience  to  scientific  form,  he  can  read  and  con- 
verse about  the  lever  and  can  thus  enter  into  fellowship 
with  the  scientific  world.  His  own  experience  has  been 
translated  into  universal  academic  experience  and  language. 
Just  as  this  boy  unconsciously  learned  certain  scientific 
facts  through  his  own  experiences,  so  all  other  persons  have 
various  experiences  outside  the  school  by  which  they  have 
gained  certain  facts  which  may  be  translated  into  scientific 
or  other  departments  of  knowledge.  Every  individual, 
through  his  personal  experiences,  has  some  knowledge  in  the 
fields  of  physics,  chemistry,  biology,  astronomy,  sociology, 
and  other  departments  of  science;  and  it  is  one  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  school  to  translate  this  knowledge  into  uni- 
versal academic  language,  —  in  other  words  to  standardize 
it  in  scientific  terms. 

Relation  of  the  school  to  vocational  instruction.  Theo- 
retically the  public  school,  as  the  agent  of  the  State  and  of 
society,  should  fit  the  child  for  an  all-round  efficiency. 
No  one  questions  the  truth  of  this  statement,  so  far  as  the 
mental  and  moral  equipment  for  life  are  concerned;  but 
there  is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the  duty  of 
the  school  in  its  relation  to  the  preparation  of  the  young  for 
vocational  activity.  At  the  present  time,  the  question  is 
receiving  widespread  consideration,  not  only  among  per- 
sons directly  concerned  with  the  education  of  the  young, 
but  by  the  people  at  large.  Already  many  of  the  States 
have  enacted  laws  requiring  the  schools  to  introduce  into 
their  curricula  definite  work  in  vocational  guidance  or  in 
prevocational  instruction.  The  reason  for  this  is  obvious, 
for  modern  conditions  present  little  opportunity  for  the 
young  to  become  acquainted  through  direct  experience 
with  the  different  occupations  in  which  pcoi)le  are  engaged. 


THE   SCH(X)L  AND  THE  STATE  113 

Since  the  industries  are  no  longer  carried  on  at  home  or  in 
the  small  shop,  and  the  child  has  not  the  opportunity, 
which  formerly  he  had,  to  become  familiar  with  the  occu- 
pation of  his  father  and  that  of  other  men  of  his  acquaint- 
ance, the  various  vocations  are  little  more  to  him  than 
mere  names.  He  has  no  definite  idea  of  their  meaning,  nor 
of  the  nature  of  the  occupations  which  they  designate. 

This  state  of  general  ignorance  regarding  the  nature  of 
the  difiFerent  vocations,  in  a  large  measure  explains  why 
the  selection  of  a  life-work  is  such  a  difficult  and  perplexing 
question  to  the  youth  of  the  present  day.  This  condition 
is  being  more  and  more  recognized  by  parents  and  those 
interested  in  the  problems  of  the  rising  generation;  and,  as 
a  result,  many  plans  for  remedying  it  are  being  devised  and 
put  into  operation.  In  this  work  the  school,  as  the  insti- 
tution best  able  to  assist  the  yoimg  in  solving  this  educa- 
tional problem,  is  taking  an  active  part.  It  is  devising 
plans  and  trying  experiments  in  order  to  discover  the  best 
means  for  helping  pupils  to  find  the  vocations  most  suited 
to  their  natural  gifts  and  inclinations,  and  for  aiding  them 
in  preparing  for  these  vocations.  The  results  already  ob- 
tained indicate  that  this  new  phase  of  education  will  be- 
come an  important  feature  of  school  work. 

Right  of  the  State  to  require  vocational  instruction.  The 
stability  of  a  nation  depends  upon  the  intelligence  and 
vocational  efficiency  of  its  people.  Hence  it  is  the  preroga- 
tive of  the  State  to  require  that  her  future  citizens  be  fitted 
for  vocational  efficiency.  Naturally,  the  first  step  toward 
definite  vocational  training  is  the  selection  of  a  vocation; 
and  in  this  matter  the  school  can  undoubtedly  render  valu- 
able service.  It  can  do  this  in  two  ways:  first,  by  giving 
prevocational  work  which  will  lay  a  foundation  and  pro- 
vide the  preliminary  instruction  and  preparation  for  the 
formal  study  of  a  particular  vocation;  and  second,  by  giving 


114  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEAv'HING 

instruction  and  help  along  the  lines  of  vocational  guid- 
ance. There  is  a  sense  in  which  all  academic  instruction 
is  prevocational,  in  that  it  gives  the  information  and  con- 
tributes to  the  development  which  will  be  of  service  to  the 
individual  in  whatever  department  of  the  industries  or  of 
business  he  may  enter.  It  may,  however,  be  made  more 
practical  than  has  been  the  case  by  relating  it  more  di- 
rectly to  life  and  to  the  particular  needs  of  the  individual. 
To  this  instruction  may  be  added  practical  experience 
through  the  manipulation  of  material  and  the  various  kinds 
of  hand  work  which  can  be  given  in  any  school.  This  kind 
of  instruction  and  teaching  educates  or  fits  for  life,  rather 
than  away  from  life,  as  was  the  case  with  much  of  the  school- 
teaching  of  the  past. 

To  the  end  that  the  teaching  of  the  schools  may  be  more 
practical,  may  relate  more  directly  to  life  as  it  is  lived  to- 
day in  our  own  country,  such  courses  as  those  in  manual 
training  and  various  kinds  of  hand  work  are  given.  This  is 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  direct  experience  with  materials 
and  in  the  use  of  the  hands.  These  courses,  if  properly  taught, 
also  furnish  a  basis  to  pupils  for  forming  somewhat  definite 
ideas  of  the  various  departments  of  industrial  activity. 
Such  work  will  also  enable  some  individuals  to  discover 
their  natural  inclination  toward  the  industries,  and  thus  it 
will  be  of  practical  value  in  helping  them  to  decide  upon 
their  life-work.  It  is  evident  that  no  better  addition  can 
be  made  to  the  curriculum  of  our  public  schools  in  this  in- 
dustrial age  than  this  practical  experience  in  hand  work. 

Vocational  guidance  an  aid  to  efl&ciency.  The  second 
phase  of  the  movement  to  prepare  the  young  for  vocational 
efficiency  which  is  rapidly  being  delegated  to  the  school 
is  that  of  vocational  guidance.  The  child,  and  in  the  major- 
ity of  cases  his  parents  as  well,  do  not  have  a  clear  idea  of 
his  natural  bent  or  fitness  for  any  particular  kind  of  work. 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  STATE  115 

For  this  reason,  and  because  each  individual  should  be 
fitted  for  economic  efficiency  if  he  is  to  become  a  useful 
member  of  society,  the  school  has  undertaken  to  add  this 
feature  to  its  work.  Certainly  no  greater  service  could  be 
rendered  to  the  youth  of  our  land  than  practical  help  in 
solving  the  perplexing  problem  of  selecting  a  vocation  tha^ 
is  suited  to  the  individual's  taste  and  ability  and  is  one  in 
which  he  may  make  the  most  of  his  time,  his  talents,  and 
his  labor.  Society  as  well  as  parents  should  welcome  any 
assistance  in  solving  this  vital  question;  for  society  in  gen- 
eral, as  well  as  the  individuals  closely  concerned,  would 
profit  from  conditions  where  skilled  labor  performed  by 
those  interested  in  their  work  would  be  the  rule  rather 
than  the  exception.  It  is  evident,  that  a  man  who  is  voca- 
tionally efficient  and  can  provide  for  his  family  satisfac- 
torily by  means  of  some  calling  that  is  suited  to  his  taste 
will  be  an  asset  to  the  community.  Such  a  man,  by  follow- 
ing an  occupation  that  offers  him  an  opportunity  for  the 
best  expression  of  his  powers,  will  be  a  more  happy  and 
useful  member  of  society  and  a  better  citizen  of  the  State 
than  one  who  is  vocationally  inefficient  and  makes  a  pre- 
carious living  by  drifting  from  one  job  to  another  as  chance 
throws  it  in  his  way. 

The  school  the  most  effective  method  of  educating  the 
masses.  Much  time  and  properly  directed  effort  is  needed 
to  acquire  the  desirable  world  facts  and  useful  experi- 
ences which  boys  and  girls  must  have  to  prepare  them  for 
their  places  and  their  work  in  the  world,  and  very  few 
parents  could  give  all  the  help  in  this  task  that  their  chil- 
dren needed.  Hence,  some  one  else  had  to  be  found  who  could 
give  the  required  assistance.  Naturally,  the  teacher  by  vir- 
tue of  his  position  was  the  one  who  could  most  effectively 
assist  the  young  in  this  matter,  and  do  so  with  the  least  ex- 
penditure of  time  on  the  part  of  the  latter.  For  this  reason, 


116  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

additional  phases  of  the  educational  problems  have  been 
assigned  to  the  teacher  in  the  school.  With  each  addition, 
his  sphere  of  effort  has  widened;  and  it  is  his  duty  so  to 
perform  the  task,  which  no  one  else  can  do  so  well  as  him- 
self, that  those  committed  to  his  instruction  may  achieve  a 
maximum  of  result  for  the  effort  and  time  expended.  To 
this  end  he  should  be  well  informed  regarding  the  function 
of  the  school,  so  that  he  will  know  what  results  to  expect 
from  this  expenditure  of  time  and  effort. 

The  most  economical  method  of  educating  the  masses. 
When  it  first  became  necessary  for  parents  to  employ 
others  to  assist  them  in  the  education  of  their  children, 
there  were  many  persons  who  could  not  meet  the  expense 
alone;  and  plans  had  to  be  devised  for  securing  education 
and  training  for  the  children  at  the  least  possible  burden 
to  their  parents.  It  was  found  that  the  most  practical 
and  economical  way  of  providing  the  needed  instruction 
was  for  a  number  of  persons  to  combine  in  employing  a 
teacher  to  instruct  their  children  in  groups,  instead  of  sep- 
arately. The  school,  which  has  passed  through  many 
changes  until  the  present  system  has  been  evolved,  was 
the  result.  For  the  support  of  the  public  schools  and  other 
educational  institutions,  the  State,  by  distributing  the 
expense  among  all  its  citizens  according  to  their  means, 
provides  education  for  the  children  of  the  poor  as  well  as 
of  the  rich,  without  imposing  a  great  burden  upon  any  one. 
From  this  it  will  be  evident  that  the  school  is  the  most 
practical  outgrowth  of  sociological  changes  and  needs  and 
of  economic  conditions  that  could  have  been  devised  for 
the  education  of  the  masses. 

Law  of  self-preservation  forces  the  State  to  educate  citi- 
zens. In  a  republic  or  democracy  like  the  United  States, 
sovereignty  or  authority  is  not  vested  in  a  single  person, 
but  in  the  whole  body  politic,  this  sovereignty  being  ex- 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  STATE  117 

pressed  through  the  casting  of  a  ballot  or  vote.  The  law 
or  obhgation  of  sovereignty  is,  however,  always  the  same, 
whether  vested  in  one  person  or  in  many  persons.  Author- 
ity must  be  exercised  with  intelligence,  for  the  security  and 
permanence  of  the  State  depends  upon  the  intelligence  of  its 
sovereign  ruler  or  its  sovereign  citizens.  Therefore,  it  is  the 
first  duty  of  the  State  to  see  that  all  persons  who  have  this 
sovereign  power,  the  ballot,  should  be  prepared  to  use  it 
intelligently.  This  is  the  fundamental  reason  why  the 
State  should  contribute  so  generously  to  the  support  of  the 
pubhc  schools.  The  law  of  self-preservation  is  as  appli- 
cable to  a  state  as  it  is  to  an  individual.  An  ignorant  ballot 
is  a  menace,  and  the  great  number  of  ignorant  voters  in  this 
country  is  one  of  its  greatest  dangers.  The  fact  that  the 
ignorant  voters  are  about  equally  divided  between  the  two 
great  political  parties  is  our  chief  safeguard;  for  the  reason 
that  the  ignorant  or  unintelligent  voters  in  the  one  party 
are  usually  fairly  well  offset  or  neutralized  by  the  ignorant 
voters  in  the  other. 

Schools  should  instruct  in  exercise  of  sovereignty.  Sov- 
ereignty should  be  intelligent  regarding  all  matters  upon 
which  it  is  called  upon  to  express  an  opinion  by  the  ballot; 
it  should  be  particularly  intelligent  in  all  matters  pertain- 
ing to  civic  affairs.  Therefore  the  public  schools  should 
give  the  kind  of  instruction  and  training  that  will  enable 
the  prospective  voter  to  exercise  his  sovereign  duties  for  the 
good  of  his  own  community  and  the  welfare  of  the  State. 
To  this  end  the  course  of  study  and  the  instruction  given 
should  have  in  mind  the  education  of  all  the  children  in  the 
schools  and  not  merely  a  certain  class  of  pupils.  It  should 
be  made  so  practical  and  be  so  closely  related  to  the  life 
and  needs  of  all  classes  of  children  that  they  will  be  eager 
to  receive  its  benefits,  instead  of  having  to  be  compelled  by 
the  law  to  do  so.    This  does  not  mean  that  there  should 


118  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

not  be  compulsory  school  laws.  These  are  necessary  in 
many  cases  where  children  and  their  parents  do  not  under- 
stand and  appreciate  the  benefits  of  the  school,  and  the  wel- 
fare of  the  State  requires  that  these  laws  be  strictly  en- 
forced. 

The  people  are  sovereign.  They  make  the  laws  that 
govern  the  nation.  Therefore,  national  stability  and  the 
best  good  of  the  people  themselves  require  that  these  laws 
be  made  by  intelligent  citizens  who  have  the  welfare  of  the 
nation  at  heart.  The  right  of  sovereignty  is  one  of  the  most 
sacred  inheritances  of  our  citizenship,  and  it  should  be  so 
regarded  by  every  voter.  The  schools  should  teach  the 
children  in  them  what  a  great  price  our  forefathers  paid 
for  this  privilege  and  that  it  is  their  duty  to  keep  this  sacred 
inheritance  pure  and  unsullied  by  any  form  of  contamina- 
tion. There  is  no  more  imperative  duty  before  the  schools 
to-day  than  this,  and  teachers  should  be  alive  to  the  fact 
that  they  are  training  the  future  sovereigns  of  our  country. 

School  most  potent  influence  for  preservation  of  the 
State.  Since  a  democracy  like  our  own  can  realize  its  ideals 
of  government  only  by  educating  its  citizens  for  intelli- 
gent self-government,  it  is  evident  that  the  public  school 
is  a  necessity,  not  only  for  the  individual  and  social  good, 
but  for  the  good  of  the  State  as  well.  As  an  outgrowth  of 
this  sentiment  the  founders  of  the  American  public-school 
system  looked  wisely  into  the  future  when  they  estab- 
lished the  great  system  of  free  schools  in  which  every  child, 
the  poorest  as  well  as  the  richest,  the  child  of  the  foreign 
immigrant  as  well  as  the  one  of  native  parentage,  may  be 
educated  at  state  expense.  Founded  upon  the  lofty  ideals 
of  liberty  and  equality,  and  with  the  exalted  aim  of  pre- 
paring a  great  people  for  wise  self-government,  for  efficient 
service,  for  high  tliinking  and  noble  living,  the  schools  of 
our  land  should  be  the  most  practical  and  valuable  of  all 


X 


THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  STATE  119 

our  social  institutions,  and  at  the  same  time,  the  most 
potent  influence  for  the  welfare  and  preservation  of  the 
State.  To  the  end  that  they  may  be  so,  teachers  should  be 
informed  regarding  the  function  of  the  school  in  relation 
to  the  State,  in  order  that  they  may  use  the  course  of  study, 
not  as  a  guide  to  the  kind  and  amount  of  formal  knowledge 
which  must  be  crammed  into  the  young  minds,  but  rather 
as  a  means  of  really  educating  children  for  intelligent  and 
eflScient  citizenship. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Craftsmanship  in  Education,  Bagby,  pp.  78,  178-89. 

N.E.A.  Report  of  1911,  Mrs.  Emmons  Blaine,  pp.  110-15, 

American  Education,  Draper,  pp.  130-31. 

The  Learning  Process,  Colvin,  pp.  26-S28. 

Education,  Thorndike,  chap.  xii. 

The  Management  of  the  City  School,  Perry,  chap.  II. 

Youth,  School,  and  Vocation,  Bloomfield. 

Types  of  Teaching,  Earhart,  pp.  131-50. 

How  to  Teach  the  Fundamental  Subjects,  Kendall  and  Mirick,  pp.  ii4r-65. 

EXERCISES 

1.  "  Sovereignty  should  be  intelligent."  If  this  statement  is  true,  give 
your  opinion  as  to  whether  Mexico  should  be  a  republic.  State  fully 
the  reasons  for  your  belief. 

2.  Name  some  of  the  external  dangers  to  the  United  States,  and  explain 
how  they  may  be  avoided.  Name  some  internal  dangers  to  the  United 
States,  and  tell  how  they  may  be  avoided.  Write  out  in  full  your 
opinions  upon  this  question. 

5.  Explain  how  the  school  may  help  to  lessen  both  the  external  and  the 
internal  dangers  that  menace  the  State.  What  branches  of  study 
would  contribute  to  this  end?  Name  the  6ve  most  important  in  the 
order  of  their  importance  as  you  understand  the  matter. 

4.  Recall  the  different  schools  which  you  have  attended  and  consider 
whether  the  work  done  in  them  has  been  carried  on  after  the  ideas 
discussed  in  this  chapter. 

6.  Tell  whether  you  think  compulsory  education  by  the  State  is  justi- 
fiable, whether  the  time  limit  for  excusing  a  i>erson  from  school  at- 
tendance should  be  based  upon  the  age  or  upon  the  educational  basis. 


120  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

whether  a  boy  of  fourteen  who  cannot  read  should  be  excused  from 
school  attendance.  Discuss  each  of  these  questions,  stating  your 
opinions  fully. 

6.  Consider  whether  the  work  usually  done  in  history,  geography,  and 
literature  increases  the  love  of  country.  Discuss  ways  in  which  in- 
struction in  these  subjects  could  be  made  more  effective.  Prepare 
a  lesson  in  each,  showing  how  you  would  teach  patriotism.  What 
test  would  you  give  to  determine  whether  you  had  succeeded. 

7.  Consider  whether  patriotism  is  instilled  in  the  mind  of  a  child  by 
his  seeing  the  flag  floating  from  the  school-house  constantly,  or  only 
on  si>ecial  days.  Tell  whether  you  think  that  the  flag  should  be  used 
for  advertising  purposes  and  give  reason  for  your  opinion. 

8.  Discuss  the  following  statements:  — 

"  He  was  as  loyal  in  peace  as  in  war." 

"  The  man  who  buys  a  vote  is  a  greater  criminal  than  the  one  who 
sells  it." 

"  It  is  the  duty  of  every  citizen  to  exercise  his  right  of  franchise 
honestly." 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  ideals  that  enter  into  national  ideals  which 
every  teacher  should  possess?  Examine  yourself  in  the  light  of  this 
chapter  and  of  the  following  sentence:  "  It  is  a  great  responsibility 
and  privilege  to  be  engaged  in  a  work  that  directly  concerns  the  soul 
and  the  welfare  of  the  nation.  Those  persons  who  are  engaged  in  it 
should  be  true,  eager,  intelligent,  and  loyal  men  and  women." 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  LEARNING  PROCESS 

Consciousness  of  self  precedes  conscious  learning.  There 
is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  when  conscious  learning 
commences.  A  child  undoubtedly  learns  something  very- 
soon  after  birth.  During  his  early  days  his  various  senses 
take  up  their  work,  and  each  contributes  something  to  his 
mental  growth.  At  this  early  period  he  does  not  know  him- 
self as  separate  from  things  about  him,  for  he  has  not  yet 
become  conscious  of  himself  as  a  being  apart  from  other 
persons  and  from  his  environment.  Even  at  this  early  stage 
of  his  existence,  however,  it  is  evident  that  he  is  a  conscious 
being  and  a  learner. 

The  beginnings  of  a  consciousness  of  self  mark  an  impor- 
tant stage  in  the  development  of  an  individual.  Until  a 
child  knows  or  becomes  conscious  of  himself  as  something 
apart  and  separate  from  the  persons  and  things  about  him, 
he  is  not  conscious  that  he  is  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  things 
external  to  himself.  Therefore,  with  the  jfirst  steps  in  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge  of  self,  the  external  world  begins 
to  take  on  a  new  meaning  to  him  and  most  of  the  impres- 
sions that  come  from  sources  external  to  the  self  have  a 
different  significance  than  ever  before.  When  a  child  be- 
comes conscious  of  himself,  as  separate  and  distinct  from 
the  objects  that  he  sees  about  him,  these  objects  at  once 
acquire  a  new  interest  to  him  and  there  is  aroused  within 
him  a  desire  to  know  something  more  about  them.  In  the 
earlier  years  of  a  person's  hfe,  consciousness  of  the  self  is 
probably  possible  only  in  the  presence  of  things  other  than 
the  self.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  self  is  discovered  by 


122  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

means  of  the  external  world,  and  that  the  effect  of  the  ex- 
ternal world  upon  the  conscious  self  affords  the  natural 
means  of  gaining  knowledge. 

Consciousness  of  self  gained  through  sensation.  A  thing 
is  brought  into  the  plane  of  consciousness  when  the  self 
becomes  aware  that  something  is  present  of  which  it  had 
not  before  taken  cognizance.  The  self  is  made  conscious 
of  the  presence  of  a  thing  external  or  apart  from  the  ego 
or  self  by  means  of  an  effect  which  this  thing  produces  upon 
the  mind  through  the  senses.  This  effect  upon  the  mind  by 
the  senses  is  known  as  sensation.  It  is  the  simplest  state 
of  consciousness  and  is  the  basis  or  foundation  of  all  knowl- 
edge. As  a  person  becomes  conscious  of  an  external  thing 
through  sensations,  it  is  also  through  sensations  that  he 
is  made  conscious  of  himself.  Through  the  sense  of  sight 
a  person  may  receive  the  sensation  of  color  from  an  object 
presented  to  him,  —  a  red  rose,  for  example.  At  the  same 
time  he  is  made  conscious  of  self  as  perceiving  or  seeing 
the  color  of  the  rose.  Through  the  sense  of  smell,  he  may 
receive  the  sensation  or  idea  of  odor  as  he  holds  the  rose  to 
his  nostrils  and  become  conscious  of  self  in  the  sensation 
that  is  produced.  From  this  and  other  examples  of  sen- 
sation which  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  reader,  it  is 
apparent  that  the  senses  have  an  important  function  to  per- 
form in  the  process  of  gaining  consciousness  of  the  self  and 
of  acquiring  knowledge  of  objects  external  to  the  self.  It  is 
because  the  mind  receives  impressions  from  objects  external 
to  itself  through  the  senses  that  these  impressions  are  called 
sensations.  They  are  often  spoken  of  as  ideas.  Ideas,  how- 
ever, relate  to  the  objects,  not  to  the  senses. 

Sensations  differ  in  character.  The  nature  or  character 
of  a  sensation  becomes  the  means  of  identifying  it  and  the 
thing  which  produced  it.  The  character  of  a  sensation  also 
affords  the  means  of  remembering  past  sensations  or  of 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  123 

recognizing  new  ones.  Since  sensations  are  caused  by  the 
different  senses,  they  may  be  totally  different  in  character. 
For  example,  by  means  of  the  eye  the  bird  is  perceived 
and  its  color,  size  and  form  are  noted.  By  means  of  the  ear, 
one  is  made  conscious  of  its  song  and  of  the  quality  of  its 
note.  By  means  of  the  sense  of  sight,  one  may  observe  the 
color  and  size  of  the  orange.  By  means  of  the  sense  of  smell, 
one  is  made  conscious  of  the  odor  of  the  orange.  Through 
the  sense  of  taste,  the  flavor  or  taste  of  the  orange  is  ob- 
tained. Through  the  sense  of  touch,  the  character  of  the 
texture  of  the  skin  of  the  orange  is  learned.  Thus  the  sen- 
sations and  ideas  of  the  orange  which  are  produced  by  the 
different  senses  are  totally  different  in  character,  but  all 
are  needed  to  convey  to  the  mind  a  complete  idea  of  this 
particular  kind  of  fruit. 

Sensations  may  differ  also  in  degree  or  intensity  and 
hence  may  represent  varying  degrees  of  a  sensation  received 
through  the  same  sense,  as,  for  example,  the  varying  in- 
tensity of  sound  from  the  low  sweet  note  of  the  tiny  bird 
to  the  loud  roar  of  the  lion  or  to  the  deafening  peal  of  thun- 
der. The  character  of  these  varying  sensations  is  recorded 
in  the  mind,  to  be  used  when  needed  in  identifying  or  dis- 
tinguishing sensations  and  their  causes.  As  new  sensations 
or  new  ideas  are  received,  they  are  compared  with  those 
previously  experienced  in  order  to  determine  to  what  class 
of  sensations  or  ideas  they  belong.  Thus  sensations  fur- 
nish the  basal  material  which  is  used  by  the  mind  for  com- 
parison, selection,  and  combining  in  all  its  operations. 

Few  distinct  kinds  of  sensations.  Since  all  sensations 
are  received  through  the  senses,  the  distinct  basal  sensa- 
tions are  relatively  few  in  number.  It  is  the  variety  in  the 
quaUty  and  mtensity  of  the  same  sensation  that  gives  the 
idea  of  great  number.  Through  the  eye,  the  sensation  is 
produced  which  is  interpreted  by  the  mind  as  color;  but 


124  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

the  particular  color  sensation  that  is  produced  may  repre- 
sent any  one  or  even  many  of  the  varying  hues  and  tints 
of  the  color  which  nature  presents.  Through  the  ear,  sound 
is  produced;  but  the  sound  may  represent  a  particular 
sound  with  its  wide  range  of  intensity,  or  a  combination  of 
several  sounds  of  infinite  degrees  of  tone  and  character. 
Simple  sensations,  which  a  person  has  already  had,  often 
recur  in  new  combinations;  and  it  is  the  result  of  these 
combinations,  not  the  individual  sensations,  that  are  new 
to  him.  When  sensations  that  are  already  familiar  oc- 
cur in  new  combinations,  a  person  will  recognize  objects 
either  as  those  already  known  or  as  altogether  new  ones. 
Color,  form,  sound,  and  all  other  sensations  that  appear  in 
different  combinations  make  it  possible  to  recognize  par- 
ticular objects  and  to  distinguish  one  object  from  another. 
Relation  of  memory  to  the  learning  process.  When  a 
sensation  is  produced  by  the  presentation  to  the  senses  of 
an  object  or  by  any  other  way,  at  once  a  mental  effort  is 
made  to  identify  it  or  to  find  out  what  it  is.  Immediately 
other  sensations  which  have  been  previously  experienced 
and  recorded  in  the  mind,  are  called  up  to  be  compared 
with  the  sensation  or  the  group  of  sensations  produced  by 
the  new  object  upon  the  senses,  in  order  to  determine 
whether  it  has  been  experienced  before.  That  condition, 
state,  or  process  of  the  mind  by  which  former  experiences  are 
reinstated  is  called  memory.  An  examination  of  this  process 
will  show  that  there  are  three  distinct  phases  of  the  mind 
united  in  what  is  commonly  known  as  memory.  First, 
there  is  the  retention  in  the  mind  of  the  sensation  or  state 
of  mind  experienced;  second,  the  phase  of  reproduction 
by  which  the  sensation  is  recalled;  and  third,  the  phase 
of  recognition  by  which  the  mind  knows  the  past  sensation 
or  experience  as  having  really  been  experienced.  Therefore, 
in  a  general  way  memory  may  be  defined  as  the  power  of 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  125 

the  mind  to  record,  reproduce,  and  recognize  past  sensa- 
tions and  experiences.  It  is  that  "  reproductive  imagina- 
tion "  by  which  past  experiences,  that  may  for  the  time 
have  been  forgotten,  are  again  brought  into  the  field  of 
consciousness.  In  a  closer  analysis,  a  distinction  is  made 
between  recollection  and  recognition;  but  for  our  present 
purpose,  this  is  not  necessary,  as  we  are  considering  mem- 
ory in  its  widest  sense  as  related  to  the  learning  process. 

Memory  images.  The  recalled  ideas  and  experiences 
which  are  brought  into  the  field  of  consciousness  by  means 
of  memory  are  called  memory  images.  The  value  of  these 
memory  images  is  apparent  when  we  consider  that  without 
them  each  sensation  or  combination  of  sensations  would 
have  the  eflFect  of  new  ones  and  would  have  to  be  con- 
tinually acquired  afresh.  Thus,  without  memory  and  the 
power  to  recall  memory  images,  a  person  could  not  make 
any  advance  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge;  for  without 
memory  he  could  not  accumulate  and  retain  sensations, 
ideas,  and  experiences.  Hence  he  would  not  have  a  stock 
of  previously  acquired  material  to  which  new  experiences 
and  sensations  could  be  added.  From  this  it  is  evident  that 
memory  is  an  important  factor  in  the  learning  process.  It 
is  because  man  can  retain  and  recall  mental  states,  and  when 
desired  can  add  to  them  to  increase  his  knowledge,  that  he  is 
superior  to  other  animals. 

Relation  of  judgment  to  the  learning  process.  Since  the 
function  of  the  memory  is  merely  to  retain  the  mental 
states,  facts,  and  experiences  which  are  recorded  in  the  mind, 
and  to  recall  or  set  them  up  for  examination  when  desired, 
it  is  evident  that  other  activities  of  the  mind  must  be  em- 
ployed in  the  learning  process.  In  order  to  make  advancement 
in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  one  must  add  useful  and 
usable  facts  and  experiences  to  those  already  accumulated. 
This  requires  a  process  of  comparison  and  selection  by 


126  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

which  the  new  sensations  and  experiences  are  compared 
with  the  ones  which  memory  furnishes,  in  order  to  deter- 
mine their  resemblance  in  nature,  characteristics,  and 
properties,  and  to  decide  the  manner  in  which  they  are  to 
be  grouped  and  added  to  the  knowledge  already  possessed. 
The  process  by  which  comparisons  and  selections  are  made 
is  termed  judging,  and  the  activity  of  the  mind  whicl' 
makes  them  is  called  the  judgment.  The  importance  of  the 
judgment  in  the  learning  process  is  apparent;  for  it  would  be 
useless  to  pile  up  unrelated  matter,  either  mental  or  mate- 
rial, where  it  would  not  be  available  for  use,  or  to  merely 
accumulate  it  and  never  make  use  of  it.  Therefore  another 
activity,  the  judgment,  is  required  to  take  the  material  re- 
corded by  memory  and  classify  and  label  it. 

Relation  of  apperception  to  the  learning  process.  There 
is  still  another  activity  of  the  mind  which  performs  an  im- 
pKDrtant  part  in  the  learning  process.  By  it  the  mental  mate- 
rial, including  the  products  of  the  sensations,  the  memory, 
and  the  judgment  are  combined  and  assimilated  by  the 
mind  in  such  a  way  that  they  become  part  of  the  mental 
structure.  After  the  judgment  has  compared  the  new  sen- 
sations with  those  which  the  memory  produces,  this  other 
activity  of  the  mind  takes  the  product  and  puts  it  with  the 
group  of  similar  ideas,  thus  uniting  all  into  a  larger  con- 
cept. For  example,  when  an  orange  is  brought  into  the 
realm  of  consciousness,  all  the  sensations  and  ideas  that 
result  from  the  activity  of  the  senses  of  sight,  smell,  taste, 
and  touch  are  united  into  one,  to  give  the  complete  con- 
cept of  this  particular  fruit  to  the  person  perceiving  it. 
The  activity  of  the  mind  by  which  these  different  ideas  are 
grouped  into  one  is  called  apperception.  It  should  be  noted 
that  apperception  does  not  choose  the  material,  but  that 
it  merely  takes  that  which  is  already  collected  and  com- 
bines it  into  a  larger  or  a  fuller  concept.    It  will  be  seen 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  1«7 

from  this,  that  apperception  combines  related  elements 
into  a  harmonious  group,  or  assembles  all  the  attributes 
of  an  object  into  an  enlarged  concept  of  that  object.  This 
makes  it  possible  for  memory  to  reproduce  or  recall  the 
object  or  the  group  as  a  whole,  or  to  select  certain  elements 
of  it  when  needed  for  comparison  with  new  material  re- 
ceived through  the  senses.  Without  apperception  to  group 
and  correlate  the  knowledge  acquired  in  different  depart- 
ments of  learning,  there  would  be  no  accumulation  of  re- 
lated matter  and  consequently  no  personal  mental  growth. 

Apperceptive  mass.  The  body  or  group  of  ideas  or  facts 
relating  to  a  given  subject  which  is  held  in  the  mind  and 
to  which  the  new  related  matter  adheres  is  called  the  ap- 
perceptive mass.  This  may  represent  the  ideas  relating  to  a 
single  object,  or  it  may  be  composed  of  those  relating  to 
several  objects.  In  either  case,  the  entire  group  or  collec- 
tion of  ideas  is  the  apperceptive  mass  to  which  new  material 
may  be  related  or  added.  For  example,  it  may  be  the  color 
red,  which  is  in  the  consciousness,  producing  the  idea,  red. 
By  means  of  memory  other  sensations  or  other  ideas  of 
red,  previously  recorded  in  the  mind,  will  be  recalled,  and 
these  all  combined  constitute  the  apperceptive  mass  for  the 
color  red.  Or  a  child  may  for  the  first  time  see  a  particular 
kind  of  dog.  He  has  seen  other  kinds  of  dogs  and  memory 
at  once  begins  to  recall  the  app>earance  and  characteristics 
of  these  to  be  compared  with  the  new  specimen.  The  points 
of  resemblance  lead  the  child  to  decide  that  the  new  animal 
is  a  dog;  and  his  apperceptive  mass  is  enlarged  by  the  addi- 
tion of  his  newly  acquired  idea  of  another  kind  of  dog. 

It  is  evident  that  in  the  process  of  learning,  acts  of  apper- 
ception are  continually  taking  place  and  the  more  of  these 
acts  there  are,  the  more  mental  growth  there  will  be.  More- 
over, the  apperceptive  act  performs  such  an  important  part 
in  the  acquisition  of  new  ideas  and  of  knowledge  in  general 


128  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

that  little  advance  can  be  made  without  due  regard  to  the 
law  that  governs  apperception  and  to  the  law  of  associa- 
tion, as  well  as  to  others  that  are  based  upon  the  law  of 
apperception.  In  all  learning,  as  in  all  teaching,  progress 
should  be  made  from  the  known  to  the  unknown,  in  order 
that  the  new  may  be  interpreted  and  classified  through 
that  which  is  already  known.  Hence  the  point  of  begin- 
ning must  always  be  the  pupil's  previous  knowledge,  and 
the  new  matter  must  be  related  to  that  already  possessed 
in  such  a  way  that  it  will  cohere  or  unite  in  forming  an 
enlarged  or  a  complete  idea.  Unless  this  is  done,  the  learner 
will  have  nothing  upon  which  to  build;  for  he  will  not  see 
the  connection  or  relation  between  new  sensations  and 
ideas,  and  those  which  have  already  been  recorded  in  the 
mind.  Again,  it  is  evident  that  the  larger  the  apperceptive 
mass,  the  greater  the  number  of  ideas  that  compose  it; 
and,  hence,  the  more  likely  it  will  be  that  it  will  contain 
some  idea  with  which  the  new  ideas  will  the  more  readily 
unite.  For  this  reason,  the  teacher,  when  presenting  any 
subject,  should  endeavor  to  make  an  appeal  to  as  many 
of  the  senses  as  possible,  that  the  number  of  apperceptive 
acts  may  be  increased  and  the  apperceptive  mass  enlarged. 
The  learning  process  compared  to  a  building.  The  process 
by  which  knowledge  is  acquired  may  be  roughly  compared 
to  the  building  of  a  structure,  a  house  for  example.  By 
means  of  sensation  and  memory,  the  original  raw  material 
for  the  mental  structure  is  gathered;  judgment,  the  archi- 
tect, classifies  the  material  according  to  its  character;  and 
apperception,  the  builder,  puts  it  into  its  proper  place. 
Until  it  is  thus  examined  and  classified  by  the  judgment 
and  put  into  the  proper  place  in  the  building  being  con- 
structed in  the  mind,  it  is  only  material  for  the  building,  con- 
sisting of  sensations,  ideas,  and  experiences,  not  yet  classi- 
fied and  made  a  part  of  the  structure  to  which  they  belong. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  129 

Before  they  are  so  classified,  and  made  a  part  of  the  struc- 
ture, they  are  valuable  only  in  the  sense  that  piles  of  lum- 
ber, brick,  and  other  building  materials  are  valuable.  They 
are  materials,  which  if  properly  classified  and  used,  become 
a  part  of  the  mental  structure;  but  they  can  be  of  Httle 
value  until  they  are  so  classified  and  used. 

Exercise  of  the  judgment  necessary.  From  the  fore- 
going discussion,  it  is  evident  that  without  the  exercise  of 
the  judgment  a  person  can  make  little  use  in  the  building 
of  his  knowledge  structure  of  the  sensations  and  the  ex- 
periences which  he  collects.  He  may  gather  and  record 
them  in  his  mmd,  he  may  even  recall  them  through  the 
exercise  of  the  memory;  but,  unless  he  employs  judgment 
and  apperception  in  the  classification  and  use  of  them,  they 
will  form  no  real  mental  structure,  will  produce  no  real 
mental  development.  Thus  a  person  who  merely  memorizes 
without  exercising  his  judgment  in  the  use  of  what  he  col- 
lects, is  accumulating  masses  of  unclassified  material,  piles 
of  lumber  or  brick;  but  he  builds  nothing  and  no  positive 
result  is  attained  from  his  efforts.  He  is  not  becoming  edu- 
cated in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  Because  of  the  danger 
that  the  instruction  in  the  public  schools  will  be  too  much 
concerned  with  the  collection  of  materials,  with  the  memor- 
izing of  facts,  and  not  enough  with  the  training  and  exercise 
of  the  judgment,  teachers  themselves  should  be  real  builders, 
not  merely  the  collectors  of  building  materials.  Moreover 
they  should  make  builders  of  their  pupils  instead  of  merely 
aiding  them  in  the  collection  of  building  materials  in  the 
form  of  well-nigh  useless  collections  of  unrelated  memor- 
ized matter.  To  accomplish  this,  teachers  must  help  their 
pupils  to  develop,  to  train,  and  to  use  their  judgment. 

The  concept  in  the  learning  process.  After  the  senses, 
memory,  judgment,  and  apperception  have  all  performed 
their  various  functions,  a  new  element  of  the  mind  results 


130  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

from  their  combined  activity.  This  new  element  represents 
the  sum  of  all  the  ideas  that  relate  to  an  object  or  to  a  class 
of  objects  or  ideas  and  is  called  a  concept.  A  concept  is  the 
mental  image  of  an  object  or  a  class  of  objects  when  not 
present  to  the  senses.  An  illustration  may  make  more  clear 
the  manner  in  which  a  child's  ideas  regarding  any  object 
with  which  he  is  familiar  are  enlarged  until,  from  a  simple 
notion  of  a  definite  object,  he  has  gained  a  general  idea  or 
concept  of  the  entire  class  to  which  this  object  belongs. 
Take,  for  example,  the  growth  of  the  child's  ideas  of  the 
common  and  well-known  animal,  the  horse.  His  first  idea 
may  have  been  obtained  from  a  toy  tin  horse.  To  his  in- 
fant mind,  a  horse  is  made  of  tin,  cannot  move  unless 
wound  up  by  means  of  a  mechanical  contrivance,  and  is 
small  in  size.  Later  he  sees  a  real  horse  of  a  color  different 
from  that  of  his  toy  animal.  His  simple  idea  of  a  toy  horse 
is  enlarged  by  the  ideas  of  size,  color,  life,  and  activity. 
He  sees  another  horse  of  a  different  size  and  color,  and  again 
his  idea  of  horse  is  enlarged  and  modified  to  include  the  new 
specimen,  and  so  on  with  each  new  horse  which  he  sees 
until  he  has  gained  a  rather  distinct  idea  of  horse  in  general, 
as  to  form,  various  colors,  sizes,  manner  of  moving,  and 
other  characteristics.  These  ideas  relating  to  the  class 
make  up  his  concept  of  the  animal,  horse;  not  of  any  horse 
in  particular,  but  of  the  class  horse,  as  distinguished  from 
other  animals.  The  child  may  have  a  concept  of  a  particular 
horse  as  well  as  a  concept  of  horses  in  general.  By  concept 
of  a  horse  is  meant  the  mental  image  of  a  horse  when  it 
is  not  present.  If  the  horse  is  present,  the  mental  image 
would  be  a  percept. 

A  concept,  like  a  simple  sensation  or  an  idea,  may  be  re- 
tained to  be  reproduced  by  memory  when  desired.  When- 
ever a  new  object  is  brought  into  a  i)crson's  consciousness, 
various  sensations  are  produced  by  its  properties  and  quali- 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  131 

ties,  each  of  which  leads  to  a  threefold  activity  or  process 
of  the  memory,  the  judgment,  and  the  apperception  to  pro- 
duce a  concept.  There  are  as  many  simple  concepts  as 
there  are  sensations.  Some  of  these  result  from  single  sen- 
sations and  some  of  them  are  the  product  of  a  combination 
of  sensations;  and  finally  all  unite  to  form  a  complete  con- 
cept of  the  object  or  idea.  Therefore,  a  general  concept  of 
anything  is  a  composite  one,  made  up  of  many  individual 
or  simple  concepts.  It  will  readily  be  understood  that  the 
character  of  the  general  concept  must  depend  upon  the 
number,  nature,  and  character  of  the  individual  concepts 
of  which  it  is  composed. 

Teaching  should  produce  real  concepts.  It  is  possible  to 
have  a  number  of  concepts  of  a  thing  without  having  a  vivid 
idea  of  what  it  is.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  possible 
to  form  a  fairly  vivid  and  correct  general  concept  when 
only  a  few  individual  concepts  are  known.  A  concept  is  said 
to  be  vivid  when  the  mental  idea  which  it  embodies  is  in 
the  main  correct.  When  practically  all  the  elementary  con- 
cepts which  one  may  have  of  an  object  are  united  into  the 
general  concept,  it  is  said  to  be  full  or  complete.  This  fact 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  teachers  in  their  work,  for 
they  should  know  what  individual  and  what  general  con- 
cepts result  from  their  teaching.  They  should  also  make 
sure  that  they  carry  their  instruction  to  the  point  where 
real  concepts  are  formed,  instead  of  stopping  with  the  mere 
act  of  memory  in  recalling  sensations  and  experiences.  The 
real  test  of  good  teaching  is  found  in  the  number  of  useful 
concepts  pupils  acquire  and  not  in  their  ability  to  memorize 
unrelated  facts  and  ideas.  The  result  of  true  teaching  is 
shown  in  the  power  of  pupils  to  think  and  reason,  rather 
than  in  their  power  to  reproduce  the  facts  accumulated  by 
memory.  This  statement  applies  to  pupils  in  all  grades. 

Interest  in  the  learning  process.   In  the  various  steps  of 


132  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

the  learning  process,  there  is  present  in  the  mind  of  the 
learner  the  instinct  of  curiosity  or  a  simple  desire  to  know 
something  about  the  object  or  the  idea  under  consideration. 
As  the  individual  concepts  begin  to  form  and  combine  into 
composite  concepts,  the  ego  or  self  becomes  conscious,  alert, 
and  active.  The  natural  instinct  of  curiosity  added  to  the 
new  concepts  together  produce  a  new  element,  interest. 
Interest,  then,  is  the  outgrowth  of  curiosity  coupled  with 
information.  It  is  a  mental  attitude  of  mind,  a  feeling 
which  urges  a  person  to  seek  more  information  upon  a 
given  subject.  Additional  effort  to  gain  information,  if  it 
increases  his  knowledge,  creates  desire  for  still  more,  pro- 
vided, of  course,  that  the  quest  promises  to  yield  some  good 
to  the  learner.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  increased  informa- 
tion upon  the  subject  in  question  produces  harm  to  the 
person,  then  a  feeling  of  aversion  is  produced.  Desire  and 
aversion  are  the  products  of  interest  combined  with  infor- 
mation. Desire  will  continue  just  as  long  as  it  is  believed 
that  the  subject  will  yield  some  good,  and  aversion  will 
continue  as  long  as  it  is  believed  that  the  subject  will  pro- 
duce harm.  When  desire  or  aversion  cease,  interest  ceases 
also,  and  indifference  results. 

The  will  in  the  learning  process.  When  curiosity  is  com- 
bined with  the  new  concept  acquired,  the  resulting  state 
of  mind  is  one  of  interest.  Naturally  this  interest  in  an 
object  is  accompanied  with  the  feeling  that  it  has  additional 
concepts  or  desirable  information  which  it  may  be  made  to 
yield;  for  interest  in  anything  ends  when  the  self  concludes 
that  there  is  nothing  more  to  be  learned  from  it,  or  that 
there  is  no  longer  anything  desirable  to  be  gained  from  it. 
So  long,  however,  as  interest  continues,  the  self  is  aroused 
to  special  activity  to  secure  the  desired  end,  or  to  realize  a 
supposed  good.  When  interest  is  accompanied  by  suffi- 
cient desire,  there  is  called  into  use  an  activity  within  the 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  1S3 

self  that  enables  it  to  put  forth  effort  to  satisfy  this  desire. 
This  effort  will  be  more  or  less  effective  according  to  the 
intensity  of  desire.  This  activity  is  known  as  the  will. 
Whenever  there  is  present  a  desire  toward  an  object  that  is 
strong  enough  to  become  determination,  there  is  an  effort 
of  the  will  to  attain  it.  Whenever  there  is  strong  aversion 
toward  an  object,  there  is  an  effort  of  the  will  to  draw  away 
from  it,  or  to  avoid  it.  In  the  sense  in  which  will  is  here  used, 
it  may  be  defined  as  the  activity  within  the  self  which 
enables  one  to  put  forth  effort  to  satisfy  desire  or  to  attain 
some  real  or  imagined  good  or  to  protect  the  self  from  harm. 
When  properly  directed  this  activity  is  productive  of  the 
greatest  good  to  an  individual,  and  it  is  a  very  important 
factor  in  the  learning  process. 

Interest  an  important  factor  in  the  learning  process.  In- 
terest in  a  subject  is  not  an  evidence  of  full  information  re- 
garding it;  but  in  reality  it  indicates  incomplete  informa- 
tion. Indeed,  interest  is  not  an  index  of  the  quantity  of 
knowledge  already  possessed  upon  a  given  subject,  but 
rather  of  the  feeling  toward  it.  It  shows  a  receptive  condi- 
tion of  mind,  with  a  seeking  attitude  and  a  feeling  of  desire 
which  are  fundamental  conditions  for  mental  development. 
Hence,  interest  on  the  part  of  the  learner  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  in  the  learning  process;  for  without  it  there 
would  be  little  activity  of  mind  and,  therefore,  no  real 
growth.  One  noted  educator  has  called  interest  the  greatest 
word  in  education.  It  is  evident  that  it  is  vital  in  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge,  for  it  gives  a  stimulus  to  effort, 
and  makes  the  most  difficult  task  a  pleasure. 

Thinking  in  the  learning  process.  In  the  foregoing  dis- 
cussion it  has  been  found  that  a  general  concept  of  a  thing 
is  made  up  of  a  number  of  individual  concepts,  and  that 
these  individual  concepts  are  in  turn  due  to  sensations, 
and  sensations  are  due  to  objects.   The  process  by  which 


134  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

new  sensations  and  concepts  are  compared  with  those  which 
memory  reproduces  and  their  resemblance  and  differences 
noted  is  called  thinking.  When  the  human  mind  receives 
its  first  conscious  sensation  it  can  begin  to  think.  It  can 
compare  this  sensation  with  the  next  one,  and  this  is  think- 
ing. Naturally,  thinking  at  this  stage  of  development  will 
be  of  a  very  elementary  and  simple  character;  for  the  com- 
parison of  simple  sensations  is  the  most  elementary  form  of 
thinking.  The  child  very  early  in  life  begins  to  compare  his 
concepts.  This  is  thinking  of  a  higher  order  than  the  com- 
paring of  sensations,  especially  when  general  concepts  are 
compared.  A  little  later,  the  child  calls  the  judgment  into 
action  in  comparing  his  own  experiences;  and  a  much 
higher  form  of  thinking  results  than  when  he  merely  com- 
pared simple  concepts. 

As  an  individual  develops  mentally,  he  increases  the 
number  and  kind  of  comparisons  that  he  can  make;  and 
this  indicates  that  his  thinking  is  becoming  more  varied. 
As  his  education  advances,  he  is  continually  adding  impor- 
tant concepts  to  his  store  of  information.  Naturally  many 
elements  from  the  individual  concepts  enter  into  the  gen- 
eral concepts  which  he  acquires,  making  the  latter  so  com- 
plex that  the  judgment  is  taxed  to  the  utmost  to  make 
correct  comparisons  and  to  reach  logical  conclusions.  This 
requires  thinking  and  reasoning  of  a  more  varied  and 
higher  order.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  power  to  think 
is  a  development  or  growth  from  the  simple  comparison  of 
simple  sensations  to  the  complex  process  of  reasoning,  by 
which  the  mind  compares,  judges,  and  classifies  complex 
concepts  in  forming  opinions  and  reaching  conclusions. 

Power  to  think  acquired  through  exercise.  When  a  per- 
son says  that  he  cannot  think,  he  either  lacks  concepts  which 
the  judgment  may  compare,  or  he  is  deficient  in  judgment 
and  in  the  power  to  see  relations  between  the  ideas  and 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  135 

concepts  to  be  compared.  It  is  self-evident  that  there  can 
be  no  thinking  unless  there  are  first  ideas  or  percepts  and 
concepts  to  be  compared  and  acted  upon  by  the  judgment. 
On  the  other  hand,  one  may  have  ideas  and  concepts  and 
yet  not  make  comparisons  of  them  or  reach  any  conclusions 
regarding  them.  Such  persons  profit  little  from  direct  teach- 
ing or  experience;  and  hence  they  fail  to  develop  the  power 
to  increase  the  number  of  vital  concepts  which  come  from 
abstract  thinking  or  from  thinking  based  upon  material 
furnished  by  memory.  Since  the  power  to  think  is  acquired 
and  increased  through  exercise,  the  importance  of  cultivat- 
ing the  habit  of  thinking,  of  making  mental  comparisons, 
is  of  the  greatest  value.  By  cultivating  this  habit  teachers 
would  make  thinkers,  not  memorizers  of  their  pupils. 

Four  steps  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  In  a  dis- 
cussion upon  education.  Dr.  Arnold  Tompkins  said,  "  There 
are  four  distinct  steps  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  The 
child  perceives,  he  hkes,  he  desires,  he  wills  to  have."  This 
is  a  clear  and  concise  statement  of  the  simple  process  by 
which  the  child  acquires  new  ideas  and  concepts  and  in- 
creases his  knowledge,  and  in  the  main  it  is  correct.  Later  on, 
other  motives  than  desire  may  cause  action.  The  first  step 
presupposes  that  some  new  thing  which  the  child  has  not 
known  or  experienced  before  is  brought  into  his  conscious- 
ness; and  he  must  take  these  four  steps  in  the  learning  proc- 
ess in  order  to  add  this  new  thing  to  his  mental  stock. 

This  epigrammatic  statement  of  Dr.  Tompkins  may  not 
be  strictly  psychological,  but  it  is  a  good  working  statement 
for  those  unacquainted  with  the  mental  processes  through 
a  study  of  psychology.  It  is  also  a  good  working  statement 
for  the  teacher.  It  suggests  definite  things  for  him  to  do,  and 
when  these  are  done  properly  the  child  will  complete  the 
process.  The  child  perceives  that  which  the  teacher  pre- 
sents to  him.  This  selection  of  the  material  to  be  presented 


196  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACmNG 

places  a  great  responsibility  upon  the  teachers  that  cannot 
safely  be  ignored.  In  addition  to  selecting  the  material  for 
the  child,  the  teacher's  duty  is  to  present  it  in  such  a  way 
that  the  child  will  like  it.  Then,  the  child,  liking  it,  will 
desire  it  and  will  put  forth  effort  to  attain  it. 

Steps  in  conscious  learning.  The  steps  which  the  child 
takes  in  the  conscious  act  of  learning  are  practically  the 
same,  although  they  may  vary  somewhat  according  to  his 
previous  knowledge,  the  conditions  under  which  the  new 
idea  is  presented  to  him,  and  the  motive  present  for  gain- 
ing information  regarding  it.  If  the  new  subject  or  lesson 
is  properly  presented,  it  should  make  an  appeal  to  him 
through  his  curiosity  and  should  create  sufficient  interest 
to  make  him  desire  to  know  more  about  it.  This  desire 
should  give  him  the  needed  motive  for  making  the  neces- 
sary effort  to  attain  the  new  and  useful  knowledge.  Nat- 
urally, the  child  is  not  conscious  of  the  distinct  steps  which 
he  takes;  but  the  teacher  should  understand  the  process. 
He  must  understand  it  in  order  that  he  may  present  new 
matter  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  necessary  appeal  to  the 
pupils,  so  that  their  effort  to  gain  knowledge  will  be  the 
natural  outcome  of  interest  and  desire,  instead  of  being 
forced  through  fear  of  consequences  or  any  other  wrong 
motive.  The  teacher  must  be  concerned  about  his  subject- 
matter,  and  the  reaction  that  comes  from  its  presentation. 

Influence  of  the  physical  nature  upon  learning  process. 
As  the  various  steps  of  the  learning  process  take  place,  the 
mental  and  the  physical  natures  act  and  react  upon  each 
other.  These  reactions  are  spoken  of  as  feelings  and  emo- 
tions. They  may  be  produced  by  sensations,  by  memory, 
by  judgment,  or  by  all  of  these  combined.  Because  of  this, 
the  emotions  may  be  as  varied  and  as  numerous  as  the  men- 
tal processes  or  the  physical  conditions  which  cause  them. 
This  relation  between  the  intellectual  and  the  physical  man 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  137 

is  expressed  by  the  assertion,  "  Every  mental  act  or  proc- 
ess has  its  corresponding  physical  reaction."  This  state- 
ment embodies  the  most  significant  law  of  physiological 
psychology,  for  it  gives  the  reason  why  the  so-called  mental 
states  have,  or  tend  to  have,  a  corresponding  physical  state 
or  condition. 

The  interdependence  of  the  intellectual  and  physical 
natures  of  man  as  expressed  in  this  law,  accounts  for  the 
many  direct  results  of  the  influence  of  the  one  upon  the 
other.  It  explains  why  the  continual  presence  of  certain 
feelings  or  emotions  in  the  mind  of  an  individual  develops 
certain  physical  states  and  characteristics.  It  makes  clear 
the  reason  for  the  mental  state  of  a  person  showing  itself 
in  the  expression  of  his  face  or  in  the  posture  of  his  body. 
This  law  explains  the  relation  between  work  and  fatigue 
and  suggests  the  reason  why  continued  mental  exertion 
causes  physical  exhaustion,  and  why  physical  weariness 
makes  mental  effort  difficult.  In  this  law  is  to  be  found  the 
reason  for  the  different  ways  in  which  the  learning  process 
affects  different  persons.  And  finally,  it  makes  plain  the 
importance  of  giving  attention  to  physical  comfort  as  one 
of  the  necessary  conditions  for  gaining  desired  results  from 
study  or  from  any  mental  activity. 

Summary.  It  has  been  the  aim  in  this  chapter  to  make 
clear  and  simple  the  psychology  of  the  learning  process  in 
the  acquisition  of  elementary  truth.  In  the  attempt  to 
make  it  simple,  statements  are  made,  no  doubt,  that  psy- 
chologists may  not  accept;  but  this  book  is  written  for  the 
young  teachers  who  desire  simple,  not  technical  phrases. 
Naturally,  the  discussion  of  this  process  makes  it  neces- 
sary to  take  up  and  consider  each  phase  of  mental  activity 
separately,  as  though  one  followed  another.  In  the  real 
act  of  learning,  in  the  acquisition  of  concepts,  however,  the 
various  faculties  employed  are  active  at  the  same  time  and 


138  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

the  different  acti\'ities  are  going  on  together.  Curiosity, 
interest,  perception,  memory,  comparison,  judgment,  ap- 
perception, feeling,  will,  thinking,  all  act  harmoniously  and 
simultaneously  to  acquire  each  new  fact  or  idea  which  the 
learner  adds  to  his  store  of  knowledge. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Modem  Methods  for  Teachers.  Boyer,  pp.  53-68. 

Principles  of  Elementary  Edtication,  Bachman,  p.  54. 

Applied  Psychology,  McClellan,  pp.  10-18,  179-80. 

The  Art  of  Education,  Howerth,  pp.  56-66. 

Psychology  and  Psychic  Culture,  Halleck,  pp.  50-69,  180-221,  229. 

Outlines  of  Psychology,  Royce,  pp.  119-22,  364. 

The  Mind  and  its  Education,  Betts,  pp.  1-12,  90-107,  182-95. 

The  Learning  Process,  Colvin,  pp.  71-75,  130,  165. 

Education,  Thorndike,  pp.  67-70. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  out  some  of  your  very  earliest  memories.  Compare  these  early 
memories  with  those  coming  a  year  or  two  later.  Is  the  general  charac- 
ter of  the  two  groups  the  same?  What  class  of  memories  continue 
most  vividly? 

2.  Name  some  things  that  you  would  be  capable  of  judging  as  to  qual- 
ity, as  to  value.  Name  some  things  that  you  would  not  be  able  to 
judge  as  to  quality,  as  to  value.  Should  a  merchant  be  able  to  judge 
his  wares?  Should  a  workman  be  competent  to  judge  of  good  work 
in  his  vocation?    Should  a  teacher  be  a  good  judge  of  school  work? 

3.  Name  some  of  the  earliest  things  a  baby  learns.  Does  he  have  sen- 
sations, memory,  will?  How  does  he  learn  without  having  a  teacher? 

4.  Name  five  things  you  have  learned,  "  by  yourself."  Write  out  as 
fully  as  you  can  what  part  the  teacher  should  have  in  the  learning 
process.  Are  you  ready  to  be  a  teacher?  Give  reasons  for  your 
answer. 

5.  State  as  nearly  as  you  can  what  would  take  place  in  your  mind  if  a 
new  story  of  Lincoln  were  told  you;  if  a  new  fruit  were  seen  and 
tasted. 

6.  Use  the  following  words  in  sentences:  perception,  perceive,  percept,  cou' 
cept.  Which  one  names  the  mental  image  when  an  object  is  present? 
Which  one  names  the  mental  image  of  an  object  when  it  is  not 
present? 

7.  "  Thinking  is  the  mental  effort  expended  in  answering  a  question." 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  139 

Test  this  statement  by  trying  to  write  about  "  patriotism."    Note 
how  the  mind  instantly  asks  questions. 

8.  Every  person  has  a  good  memory  for  some  things  and  a  poor  memory 
for  others.  Consider  whether  this  is  true  in  your  case?  Name  five 
things  or  kinds  of  knowledge  that  you  remember  well.  One  boy  can 
remember  all  the  details  of  a  baseball  game  including  names  of 
players,  errors,  good  plays  and  other  facts  about  the  game;  but  he 
does  not  remember  poetry  and  history  very  well.  Another  boy  remem- 
bers poetry  and  history  but  does  not  remember  the  ball  game  at  all. 
Which  is  credited  with  a  good  memory  by  most  teachers?  Is  this 
right?  Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

9.  Explain  some  way  in  which  you  could  help  each  of  these  boys. 

10.  "  Doing  is  a  test  of  knowing."  Which  part  of  the  chapter  justifies 
this  statement?  Is  it  certain  that  the  student  who  passes  the  highest 
examination  knows  the  most?  Give  reason  for  your  opinion. 

11.  Consider  the  truth  of  the  following  statement:  "  A  good  teacher 
is  one  who  is  able  to  arouse  the  pupil's  interest  in  the  subjects  he 
teaches."  If  this  statement  is  not  always  true,  tell  what  may  pre- 
vent this  result.  Give  your  concept  of  a  good  teacher. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CORRECT  CONCEPTS  NECESSARY  FOR  RIGHT  THINKING 

Exercise  of  the  reasoning  powers  necessary  for  subjec- 
tive growth.  The  quality  and  quantity  of  a  person's  think- 
ing depend  upon  the  quaHty  and  quantity  of  his  concepts, 
and  his  mental  growth  depends  upon  his  ability  to  think 
and  reason.  From  this  statement  it  is  evident  that  to  insure 
real  growth  a  person  must  acquire  a  store  of  concepts  upon 
which  to  base  his  thinking.  Further,  since  the  quality  of 
his  thinking  is  determined  by  the  character  of  his  concepts, 
it  is  important  that  he  acquire  correct  and  desirable  con- 
cepts. Hence  every  person  should  endeavor  to  increase 
his  quantity  of  ideas  and  knowledge  by  the  continual  addi- 
tion of  desirable  concepts.  Since  children  and  young  pupils 
do  not  understand  the  necessity  for  this,  they  must  be 
guided  in  their  acquisition  of  knowledge  by  older  persons 
who  do  understand  it;  for  if  they  are  not  so  guided,  their 
concepts  may  not  be  of  a  character  to  make  right  and  clear 
thinking  possible. 

Cultivation  of  the  thinking  habit  important.  A  person 
should,  as  early  in  life  as  possible,  form  the  habit  of  think- 
ing. For  this  reason  those  persons  who  are  engaged  in  the 
instruction  of  the  young  should  make  it  a  distinct  aim  of 
their  teaching  to  present  the  kind  of  subject-matter  that 
will  enable  the  pupil  to  gain  as  large  a  number  of  valuable 
concepts  as  he  can,  and  then  should  lead  him  to  make  use  of 
them  in  real  thinking.  Since  the  true  result  of  teaching,  as 
shown  in  the  subjective  growth  of  the  pupils,  is  dependent 
upon  their  gaining  the  ability  to  think,  it  follows  that  before 
a  child  can  experience  the  desirable  reaction  and  stimulus 


CORRECT  CONCEPTS  141 

of  genuine  thinking,  he  must  have  a  store  of  vivid  and  com- 
plete concepts  upon  which  to  base  his  thinking.  Herein  Hes 
the  duty  and  the  opportunity  of  the  teacher  to  help  his 
pupils  in  acquiring  these  concepts;  and  it  is  a  duty  which 
he  should  be  quick  to  recognize,  if  he  expects  to  be  a  true 
teacher  and  instructor,  a  real  guide  of  the  young. 

Teachers'  failures  often  due  to  ignorance  of  true  aim. 
The  ignorance  on  the  part  of  many  teachers  of  the  principle 
which  governs  the  dependence  of  one's  thinking  upon  the 
concepts  possessed,  accounts  for  more  of  the  failures  of 
teachers  to  achieve  the  true  aim  of  teaching  than  perhaps 
any  other  cause.  Conscious  or  unconscious  negligence  in  the 
recognition  and  observance  of  this  principle  is  unfortunately 
more  common  than  those  who  have  not  investigated  the  mat- 
ter would  suppose.  Nor  are  failures  from  this  cause  con- 
fined only  to  young  and  inexperienced  teachers.  Such  failures 
may  be  found  in  the  work  of  teachers  of  long  experience. 
Neither  are  they  confined  to  teachers  of  the  lower  grades; 
for  failure  to  achieve  the  true  aim  of  teaching  may  be  found 
in  all  departments  of  the  school,  from  the  primary  to  the 
grammar  grades  and  from  the  first  year  to  the  close  of  the 
high-school  course,  and  even  in  the  college. 

The  immediate  causes  of  this  condition  are  to  be  found, 
first,  in  the  limited  number  of  clear  concepts  possessed  by 
the  teacher  and  in  the  unwise  selection  of  concepts  to  be 
taught;  and,  second,  in  the  character  of  the  tests  that  are 
given  to  measure  the  results  of  the  teaching.  Regarding  the 
first  of  these  causes,  it  is  evident  that  when  a  teacher  has  few 
clear  concepts  himself,  his  selection  of  those  to  be  taught 
must  of  necessity  be  limited.  The  second  cause  is  the  result 
of  a  mistaken  idea  of  the  purpose  of  teaching  and  con- 
sequently of  the  evidences  and  proofs  of  real  growth.  There- 
fore, the  objective  tests  given  to  ascertain  the  results  of 
the  teaching  are  not  such  as  measure  true  growth  in  the 


142  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

acquisition  of  clear  concepts  nor  in  the  ability  to  think  and 
reason.  The  practice  of  giving  such  tests  has  become  so 
universal  that  they  often  seem  to  be  the  main  motive  of  the 
teaching  and  of  the  pupil's  study.  Moreover,  an  objective 
rather  than  a  subjective  aim  far  too  often  governs  the  selec- 
tion of  lesson  material  and  the  manner  of  ascertaining  re- 
sults. 

Examples  of  teachers'  poverty  of  concepts.  Recently,  a 
somewhat  extensive  investigation  was  made  into  the  char- 
acter and  quantity  of  the  concepts  of  a  number  of  teachers 
and  a  group  of  students  who  were  preparing  themselves  to 
become  teachers.  This  inquiry  was  made  with  particular 
reference  to  the  concepts  which  these  persons  had  of  the 
terms  used  in  the  common  branches.  As  a  result  of  this  ex- 
amination, it  was  found  that  a  majority  had  incorrect  and 
incomplete  concepts,  not  only  of  the  subjects  under  con- 
sideration and  of  the  terms  used  in  them,  but  also  of  the 
laws  and  principles  governing  these  subjects.  Not  over 
twenty  per  cent  of  several  hundred  persons  whose  concepts 
were  thus  tested  had  correct  or  clear  concepts  of  such  terms 
and  expressions  as  those  indicated  in  the  following  lists:  — 

Examples  taken  from  tests  of  concepts. 

Arithmetic  — 

Simple  number,  complex  fraction,  denominate  number, 
reduction,  cancellation,  area,  square,  simple  fraction. 

Geography  — 

River,  bay,  harbor,  lake,  watershed,  plain,  commerce, 
longitude,  latitude,  equator,  glacier,  moraine. 

Grammar  — 

Clause,  phrase,  subject,  predicate,  object,  complement, 
part  of  speech,  verb,  participle,  modifier. 

Common  expressions  and  proverbs  — 
He  is  a  wolf  in  sheep's  clothing. 
A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 


CORRECT  CONCEPTS  143 

Honesty  is  the  best  policy. 

In  unity  there  is  strength. 

A  faint  heart  never  won  a  fair  lady. 

To  thine  own  self  be  true. 

He  caught  a  tartar. 

A  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned. 

Many  of  the  answers  that  were  given  to  these  and  similar 
questions  relating  to  the  terms  used  in  the  common  branches 
and  the  principles  underlying  these  subjects  were  incorrect 
or  imperfect.  Some  of  them  would  have  been  amusing  but 
for  the  fact  that  they  were  given  seriously  by  earnest  young 
people  who  had  acquired  their  concepts  of  these  terms 
through  the  instruction  of  teachers  in  whom  they  had  con- 
fidence. Many  of  the  answers  were  interesting  as  an  indica- 
tion of  the  kind  of  instruction  the  teachers  had  received 
when  they  were  pupils  in  school. 

This  investigation  showed  further  that  the  teachers  ques- 
tioned not  only  had  imperfect  and  incomplete  concepts  of 
the  subjects  which  they  taught,  but  that  they  had  equally 
imperfect  ideas  as  to  what  should  be  taught  in  different 
grades  under  ordinary  conditions.  Their  conceptions  of  the 
methods  of  teaching  to  be  employed  were  also  vague,  and 
their  ideas  of  the  aim  of  teaching  and  of  the  results  to  be 
obtained  were  often  altogether  wrong.  In  the  light  of  the 
result  of  such  investigations,  one  does  not  wonder  so  much 
that  the  schools  are  often  poor  and  the  results  are  unsatis- 
factory; but,  rather,  one  is  surprised  that  the  schools  are  as 
good  as  they  are,  and  the  results  of  the  instruction  in  them 
are  no  worse  than  they  are. 

Related  concepts  necessary  for  logical  thinking.    Poor 
results  in  the  mental  growth  of  pupils  is  often  due  to  the  fact 
that  teachers  have  not  made  a  careful  or  wise  selection  of 
concept  material  to  be  taught.  To  insure  natural  and  satis-     {^^ 
factory  growth,  the  subject-matter  necessary  to  produce  it 


144  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

must  be  added  in  the  proper  places,  the  proper  quantity,  and 
the  proper  order.  It  is  evident  from  the  facts  and  conditions 
already  cited  that  in  many  schools  and  in  the  case  of  many 
of  the  subjects  taught,  the  elements  of  real  growth  were  not 
thus  acquired  and  added.  Careful  investigations  have  re- 
vealed the  fact  that  concept  material  that  is  unrelated  and 
miscellaneous  in  character  is  often  given,  even  by  well  in- 
formed teachers.  In  many  instances  it  was  apparent  that 
the  concepts  which  the  teacher  wished  to  develop  did  not 
exist  in  her  own  mind  as  clear  or  complete  concepts.  Hence 
the  material  for  forming  them  was  poorly  presented.  In  the 
case  of  such  teaching,  the  child's  mind  is  furnished  with  im- 
perfectly understood  or  unrelated  concepts,  and  he  is  unable 
to  think  and  reason  logically  and  correctly.  As  a  result, 
he  cannot  experience  the  satisfaction  and  joy  that  comes 
from  constructive  thinking  nor  have  the  growth  that  results 
from  it. 

Examination  tests  show  a  teacher's  aim.  The  character 
of  examination  tests  given  by  a  teacher  usually  reveals  the 
aim  which  governs  his  teaching  and  also  shows  something 
of  the  character  of  the  concepts  which  he  acquired  when  he 
was  himself  a  pupil.  The  nature  of  the  tests  given  by  many 
teachers,  as  well  as  their  teaching,  shows  that  their  principal 
aim  is  for  objective  results  —  for  the  mere  memorizing  of 
facts,  rather  than  for  subjective  results,  as  shown  in  the  ac- 
quisition of  clear  concepts  and  the  right  exercise  of  the  rea- 
soning powers.  Thus  the  results  have  been  mainly  objective 
rather  than  subjective.  By  an  objective  result  is  meant  the 
ability  on  the  part  of  the  child  to  report  in  answer  to  ques- 
tions asked,  the  information  received  from  study  or  from 
instruction.  A  child  having  a  good  memory  may  give  back 
in  reply  to  questions  much  information  relating  to  the  sub- 
ject studied  and  yet  have  made  little  or  no  advancement  in 
the  acquisition  of  right  concepts  and  in  the  power  to  think. 


CORRECT  CONCEPTS  145 

Many  personal  observations  in  proof  of  this  assertion  might 
be  related,  but  one  will  be  suflBcient  to  illustrate  the  point. 

The  author,  when  a  pupil  in  the  high  school,  memorized 
Davies'  Legendre  from  beginning  to  end.  When  a  given 
theorem  was  mentioned,  he  could  give  the  number  of  the 
theorem,  the  theorem  itself,  and  the  book  in  which  it  was  to 
be  found.  His  teacher  gave  him  100  per  cent  on  every  ex- 
amination throughout  the  year,  including  the  final  test,  and 
regarded  him  an  exceptional  student  in  the  subject  of  plane 
geometry.  Notwithstanding  this  fact,  he  was  not  a  good 
student  of  geometry;  for  all  his  work  had  failed  to  give  him 
geometrical  concepts.  He  had  neither  the  power  to  think  in 
surface  and  space  relations,  nor  the  ability  to  do  original 
work.  If  he  had  been  asked  to  prove  that  the  diagonal  of  a 
square  divides  it  into  two  equal  parts,  he  could  not  have 
done  it,  even  after  a  year's  work  in  memorizing  the  theorems 
set  down  in  the  book.  The  teaching  had  been  entirely  ob- 
jective, and  the  results  were  objective.  This  is  not  an  excep- 
tional or  an  unusual  case  of  this  kind  of  teaching  nor  of  the 
results  from  it.  Doubtless  the  reader  can  recall  similar  expe- 
riences and  results  from  purely  objective  teaching  in  his  own 
school  days. 

Teachers  often  deluded  regarding  results  of  teaching. 
Teachers  are  sometimes  greatly  mistaken  with  regard  to  the 
results  of  their  own  teaching,  and  what  they  consider  de- 
sirable results  are  often  not  real  gains  to  the  child,  because 
they  do  not  show  vital  mental  growth.  In  fact,  much  of  the 
supposed  good  teaching,  when  subjected  to  the  tests  that 
determine  real  subjective  growth,  is  found  to  be  very  un- 
satisfactory and  shows  in  its  results  many  elements  of  posi- 
tive loss  instead  of  real  gain.  This  is  not  always  due  to  care- 
lessness or  lack  of  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  but, 
rather,  to  a  mistaken  idea  of  how  real  growth  is  attained  and 
the  results  by  which  it  is  shown. 


146  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACfflNG 

Often  teachers  who  are  earnest  and  conscientious  are 
deluded  regarding  the  true  character  of  their  teaching,  due, 
not  alone  to  their  wrong  conception  of  the  true  aim  of  teach- 
ing, but  also  to  their  lack  of  knowledge  of  psychology  and 
its  fundamental  laws.  This  statement  is  not  intended  to 
convey  the  impression  that  a  person  cannot  be  a  good  teacher 
unless  he  is  a  student  of  formal  psychology.  Some  knowl- 
edge of  psychology,  and  particularly  of  the  principles  which 
relate  to  teaching,  is  invaluable  to  the  teacher;  but  it  not 
infrequently  happens  that  a  teacher's  own  reasoning  has 
shown  him  the  true  aim  of  education  and  the  principles  re- 
lating to  it,  and  has  led  him  to  devise  methods  by  which 
these  principles  may  be  applied  and  this  aim  may  be  at- 
tained. 

Many  examples  might  be  cited  of  such  teachers,  who  are 
using  true  pedagogical  principles  and  methods  in  their  teach- 
ing, although  they  may  be  entirely  ignorant  of  psychology  as 
a  science,  may  not  be  familiar  with  a  single  psychological 
term,  and  may  never  have  heard  a  psychological  conclu- 
sion as  related  to  teaching.  They  have  gained  their  knowl- 
edge of  method  through  experience,  perhaps  of  many  years; 
but  it  has  invariably  been  obtained  at  the  expense  of  the 
pupils  upon  whom  they  experimented. 

Apparent  subjective  results  often  misleading.  Frequently 
teachers  are  deluded  with  regard  to  the  results  of  their  teach- 
ing, because  of  apparent  evidences  of  subjective  results 
which  are  shown  by  the  seeming  interest  of  pupils  in  a  given 
subject.  In  consequence  of  this,  incorrect  estimates  of  the 
value  of  the  teaching  are  formed.  In  many  cases  these  seem- 
ing subjective  results  are  the  outgrowth  of  the  emotional 
nature  rather  than  of  the  activity  of  the  reasoning  powers. 
The  apparent  interest  on  the  part  of  the  pui>ils  in  the  subject 
being  presented  is  often  caused  by  love  for  the  teacher  and 
desire  to  please  him,  which  leads  them  to  evince  an  interest 


CORRECT  CONCEPTS  147 

for  his  sake  alone,  rather  than  because  of  any  appeal  which 
the  subject  makes  to  them.  It  may  also  be  caused  by  the 
teacher's  praise  of  the  pupil  for  a  good  memory  and  per- 
fect recitations;  or  it  may  be  prompted  by  teaching  that  has 
much  of  the  entertaining  element,  and  therefore  delights 
the  pupil  and  produces  an  emotional  response  that  is  mis- 
taken for  a  proper  subjective  result. 

As  an  illustration  of  this  last  kind  of  response,  a  case  is 
recalled  of  the  result  of  the  teaching  of  a  woman  who  was 
a  very  poor  teacher  but  a  good  entertainer  and  mistook 
entertaining  for  teaching.  For  a  time  she  was  very  popular 
with  both  children  and  parents,  who  thought  her  an  excel- 
lent teacher  because  she  interested  and  entertained  her 
pupils.  It  was  not  until  the  latter  had  passed  into  another 
grade  and  had  come  under  the  instruction  of  another 
teacher  that  the  discovery  was  made  that  they  had  really 
learned  little  or  nothing  while  under  the  teaching  of  the 
former,  and  that  the  year's  work  had  to  be  done  over. 

This  same  emotional  result  may  be  caused  by  an  interest 
in  illustrations  and  experiments  which  the  teacher  employs 
to  make  certain  points  in  the  teaching  clear.  These  illus- 
trations or  experiments  may  engage  the  attention  and 
arouse  the  interest  of  the  pupil  without  leading  him  to  do 
any  real  thinking  or  to  gain  any  clear  concepts  of  the  thing 
illustrated.  An  example  of  this  may  be  taken  from  a  scienti- 
fic experiment  in  which  the  pupil  is  often  interested  in  the 
apparatus  when  he  has  no  interest  in  the  thing  being  illus- 
trated or  proved  by  the  experiment.  The  seeming  interest 
and  understanding,  however,  mislead  the  teacher  and  cause 
him  to  draw  wrong  conclusions  regarding  the  value  and  the 
results  of  the  teaching. 

Pupils'  failure  to  think,  due  to  teaching.  Perhaps  the 
most  universal  complaint  of  teachers  is  that  their  pupils  do 
not  think,  do  not  make  comparison  of  the  new  ideas  with  the 


148  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

old,  but  receive  the  new  ideas  passively.  This  is  a  state  of 
affairs  that  exists  so  generally  that  both  teachers  and  parents 
frequently  accept  it  as  a  condition  that  cannot  be  remedied. 
A  little  investigation  of  the  character  of  the  work  being  done 
in  many  of  our  schools  will  reveal  to  any  intelligent  person 
the  reason  why  children  do  not  think.  The  universality  of 
this  condition  clearly  indicates  that  teachers  in  general  do 
not  present  enough  work  of  a  character  to  arouse  the  reason- 
ing faculties  of  their  pupils  sufficiently  to  insure  the  in- 
creased ability  on  the  part  of  the  latter  to  think.  It  must  be 
evident  to  all  who  have  given  the  matter  any  consideration, 
why  those  teachers  who  complain  the  most  about  the  in- 
ability of  their  pupils  to  think  are  usually  powerless  in  their 
efforts  to  remedy  this  condition.  It  is  apparent  that  before 
this  condition  can  be  greatly  improved,  vital  changes  must 
be  made  in  the  plan  and  methods  of  instruction  in  our  schools. 
Criticisms  of  schools  make  improved  conditions  neces- 
sary. The  criticisms  of  the  schools  for  their  failure  to  fulfill 
the  purpose  for  which  they  exist  have  become  sufficiently 
general  to  cause  those  who  are  concerned  with  the  problem 
of  educating  the  young  to  take  vigorous  measures  to  dis- 
cover and  remedy  this  condition.  While  it  is  generally 
agreed  that  there  is  something  radically  wrong  with  existing 
conditions,  there  are  differences  of  opinion  regarding  the 
specific  causes  of  these  unsatisfactory  conditions  and  the 
means  of  remedying  them.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the 
failure  of  teachers  to  realize  the  true  purpose  of  teaching, 
because  they  do  not  help  their  pupils  to  acquire  a  usable  fund 
of  desirable  concepts,  is  more  far-reaching  in  its  consequences 
than  might  at  first  glance  be  supposed.  In  the  first  place,  the 
pupil,  through  not  having  a  store  of  valuable  concepts  by 
means  of  which  he  may  train  or  cultivate  his  reasoning 
powers,  fails  to  experience  the  wholesome  reaction  which 
arises  from  real  thinking.    In  the  second  place,  he  fails  to 


CORRECT  CONCEPTS  149 

cultivate  for  subsequent  use  those  reasoning  powers  which 
can  be  produced  only  by  constant  exercise  in  real  thinking. 
Moreover,  the  failure  on  the  part  of  teachers  to  present  new 
and  vital  concepts  makes  school  work  uninviting  to  pupils 
and  the  schoolroom  a  dull,  uninteresting  place.  As  a  con- 
sequence even  the  objective  results  are  lessened  and  pupils 
lose  interest  in  school  altogether,  as  is  shown  by  the  large 
number  that  leave  it  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  that 
they  can  escape  from  it.  As  a  result  of  an  investigation  of 
existing  conditions  in  many  schools  and  a  careful  examina- 
tion into  the  reasons  why  the  school  as  an  institution  often 
fails  to  fulfill  adequately  the  purpose  for  which  it  came  into 
existence,  the  authors  are  convinced  that  two  important 
changes  are  necessary.  In  the  first  place,  some  radical 
changes  must  be  made  in  the  curriculum;  and,  in  the  second 
place,  there  must  be  improvements  in  the  character  of  the 
preparation  of  teachers  for  the  work  of  instructing  the  young. 
Curriculiun  should  include  subjects  rich  in  concepts.  The 
curriculum  must  be  changed  so  as  to  include  a  larger  number 
of  subjects  that  are  rich  in  concept-making  material,  and 
these  must  form  a  part  of  the  daily  program  in  every  school. 
Among  the  subjects  which  should  be  given  a  more  im- 
portant place  may  be  mentioned:  nature  study,  drawing, 
manual  constructive  work,  and  educational  games.  Each  of 
these  subjects,  when  properly  taught,  furnishes  abundant 
material  for  the  presentation  of  desirable  concepts.  To 
insure  pupils  acquiring  these  concepts,  the  subjects  must  be 
presented  in  such  a  way  as  to  arouse  the  reasoning  activities 
of  the  mind;  for,  as  instruction  in  these  subjects  is  usually 
given,  pupils  receive  but  few  concepts  and  are  not  encour- 
aged to  do  much  individual  thinking.  For  example,  in  con- 
structive work  the  purpose  should  not  be  so  much  excel- 
lence of  production  as  an  effort  to  gain  as  large  a  number  of 
concepts  of  the  material  used  as  possible,  of  its  source,  of  its 


150  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

characteristics,  of  its  value,  and  of  the  uses  to  which  it  may 
be  appHed.  All  of  these  concepts  and  many  others  should 
be  acquired  while  a  simple  piece  of  constructive  work  is  in 
progress. 

Similar  aims  should  characterize  the  work  in  manual 
training.  The  argument  for  giving  manual  training  a  place 
in  our  school  curriculum  is  not  so  much  concerned  with  the 
skill  to  be  acquired  in  constructing  articles  as  is  generally 
supposed.  Manual  training  offers  an  opportunity  for  pre- 
senting a  body  of  concepts  as  numerous  and  as  practical  as 
those  of  history,  of  geography,  or  of  science;  and  therefore 
it  merits  a  place  in  the  course  of  study  of  the  public  school. 
In  fact  there  is  no  other  reason  that  would  justify  its  being 
given  a  place  in  the  course  of  study  of  the  public  school. 

Concepts  from  manual  training  illustrated.  A  simple  ex- 
ample will  illustrate  how  an  exercise  in  manual  training  may 
be  made  to  yield  many  desirable  concepts  and  provoke 
thought  on  the  part  of  pupils.  Suppose  the  article  to  be 
made  is  a  wooden  box.  Excellence  of  workmanship  should 
not  be  the  primary  aim  for  which  the  box  is  being  made. 
There  are  a  large  number  of  ideas  and  concepts  that  are  sug- 
gested in  the  making  of  the  box,  and  the  presentation  of  these 
should  be  made  the  main  purpose  of  the  exercise.  The  out- 
line given  below  will  suggest  some  of  the  things  that  should 
be  taught  in  connection  with  making  a  box  in  the  manual 
training  exercise.  Unless  the  teacher  has  the  broad  view  in 
his  manual  instruction  which  this  outline  suggests,  his  re- 
sults will  not  justify  the  salary  paid  him;  for,  in  the  words 
of  G.  Stanley  Hall,  "  the  work  in  wood  will  produce  only 
wooden  results." 

Outline  of  topics  for  information. 

1.  Different  kinds  of  wood  suitable  for  making  boxes. 

2.  The  use  of  the  box  to  determine  the  kind  of  wood. 
8.  Sources  and  values  of  wood. 


CORRECT  CONCEPTS  161 

4.  Questions  of  design,  shape,  strength,  and  use. 

5.  Working  drawings, 

6.  Use,  value,  and  care  of  tools. 

7.  Other  materials,  —  sand  paper,  varnish,  paint,  etc. 

8.  Finish,  edges,  joints,  surface,  etc. 

9.  Value  when  completed,  when  cost  of  material  and  reasonable 
pay  for  time  expended  are  considered. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  these  and  many  other  useful  ideas 
and  concepts  may  be  gained  by  the  child  while  construct- 
ing this  simple  article,  provided  the  teacher  improves  the 
opportunities  for  giving  the  instruction  which  the  exercise 
affords.  If  useful  concepts  are  not  gained  during  the  con- 
structive work  in  manual  training,  the  effort  all  going  into 
acquiring  skill  in  workmanship  instead,  then,  this  branch  of 
instruction  should  be  eliminated  from  our  public  schools  as 
not  having  a  rightful  place  there.  The  chief  value  of  manual 
training  in  the  education  of  the  child  lies  in  its  capacity  for 
yielding  useful  concepts,  a  fact  of  which  the  teacher  should 
never  lose  sight,  when  giving  instruction  in  this  branch. 

Better  preparation  of  teachers  necessary.  It  is  quite  as 
necessary  that  there  should  be  a  change  in  the  character  of 
the  preparation  of  teachers,  in  order  to  insure  improved  con- 
ditions in  our  schools,  as  it  is  that  there  should  be  a  change  in 
the  curriculum.  No  great  improvements  in  our  schools  can 
be  expected  until  this  fact  becomes  more  generally  recog- 
nized. In  order  that  teachers  may  make  the  proper  prep)- 
aration  for  the  work  of  teaching,  they  must,  first  of  all,  have 
the  correct  idea  of  what  the  true  aim  of  teaching  really  is. 
Naturally,  teachers  do  their  work  according  to  their  ideas  of 
the  purpose  to  be  attained  by  it.  If  their  ideas  regarding  the 
purpose  of  education  are  wrong,  their  teaching  will  of  neces- 
sity be  wrong  also.  Hence  mistaken  notions  regarding  the 
aim  of  teaching  must  first  of  all  be  corrected,  and  a  clear  and 
proper  conception  of  the  true  purpose  of  teaching  be  given 


152  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

instead.  When  teachers  do  gain  a  clear  and  correct  under- 
standing of  this  purpose  they  can  then  inteUigently  make 
such  preparation  as  will  enable  them  to  realize  this  aim  in 
their  own  teaching. 

More  attention  to  subjective  phase  of  education  needed. 
The  observations  of  the  thoughtful  educator  will  show  him 
that  the  teachers  in  the  majority  of  the  schools  should 
give  more  attention  to  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the 
thinking  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  as  well  as  to  the  number 
and  quality  of  the  concepts  formed.  Before  teachers  can  do 
this  effectively,  they  must  emancipate  themselves  from  the 
almost  slavish  adherence  to  the  mechanical  and  objective 
phase  of  education  and  become  thoroughly  imbued  with  the 
subjective  phase  of  it.  Moreover,  the  teacher  should  show  in 
himself  the  results  of  proper  training  and  thinking,  in  order 
that  he  may,  by  example  as  well  as  by  precept,  demonstrate 
the  satisfaction  and  happiness  that  may  be  gained  by  the  right 
kind  of  education.  The  wise  teacher  will  not  fail  to  give  his 
pupils  such  guidance  in  the  use  of  the  concepts  which  they 
acquire  as  will  enable  them  to  make  use  of  these  concepts 
to  ascertain  and  discover  relations  in  other  ideas,  in  na- 
tural phenomena,  and  in  the  concrete  objects  about  them. 
Unless  a  child  learns  to  use  the  concepts  which  he  acquires, 
in  the  interpretation  and  understanding  of  what  he  sees  and 
hears  and  reads,  they  will  be  of  comparatively  little  value 
or  use  to  him.  When  they  are  so  used,  however,  they  become 
a  source  of  profit  and  pleasure,  and  they  will  greatly  assist 
him  in  forming  the  habit  of  clear  and  logical  thinking. 

Right  habit  of  thinking  should  be  formed.  It  is  unfortu- 
nately true  that,  as  a  rule,  the  children  in  our  schools  have 
not  formed  the  habit  of  real  thinking.  Indeed,  most  people 
of  adult  years  do  not  have  this  habit  developed  to  a  marked 
degree,  for  the  reason  that  they  received  no  incentive  for 
real  thinking  and  were  not  taught  how  to  think  when  they 


CORRECT  CONCEPTS  15S 

were  children.  As  a  result,  they  did  not  learn  how  to  use  the 
concepts,  which  they  acquired,  in  determining  relations. 
Persons  who  have  made  extensive  investigations  in  schools 
in  all  parts  of  the  country  find  that  there  are  but  few  teachers 
who  make  the  cultivation  of  the  reasoning  powers  of  their 
pupils  a  definite  aim  of  the  recitation,  or  who  regard  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  habit  of  deliberate  thinking  an  aim  for  which 
they  should  persistently  strive.  It  seems  unaccountable  that 
this  should  be  the  case;  for  every  intelligent  person  recognizes 
the  value  of  being  able  to  think  and  knows  the  distinctive 
place  which  a  person  who  is  known  as  a  clear  thinker  oc- 
cupies in  the  community.  The  fact  that  so  Uttle  attention 
is  given  to  the  cultivation  of  the  reasoning  powers  may 
be  accounted  for,  at  least  in  part,  on  the  ground  that  many 
persons  believe  that  one  is  enabled  to  think  through  the 
acquisition  of  a  great  number  of  ideas  and  a  large  amount 
of  information. 

Hence  the  pupil's  effort  is  directed  toward  memorizing 
facts,  rather  than  toward  the  real  exercise  of  the  reasoning 
powers  in  discovering  relations  and  in  finding  out  the  things 
he  wishes  to  know.  A  large  fund  of  knowledge  is  most  de- 
sirable, and  a  good  memory  is  a  fortunate  possession;  but  a 
person  who  has  a  good  memory  is  not  necessarily  a  great 
thinker.  In  fact,  he  may  be  quite  the  opposite;  for  he  may 
consciously  or  unconsciously  substitute  memory  for  think- 
ing. He  may  often  express  the  memorized  opinions  of  others, 
and  he  may  be  guided  by  rules  and  judgments  which  have 
been  borrowed  from  other  persons.  Such  a  person  is  the  na- 
tural product  of  objective  teaching  wherein  his  best  ability 
was  expended  in  memorizing  facts  instead  of  in  acquiring 
clear  concepts.  He  has  a  large  amount  of  objective  informa- 
tion, but  it  has  failed  to  affect  him  subjectively.  Hence  he 
has  not  developed  his  power  to  think;  for  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  one's  thinking  depends  upon  the  quantity  and 


154  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

quality  of  his  concepts,  and  he  has  not  acquired  clear  and 
definite  concepts. 

Cultivation  of  the  habit  of  thinking.  Since  it  is  of  para- 
mount importance  that  the  habit  of  thinking  be  cultivated 
during  childhood  and  youth,  it  is  clearly  the  concern  of 
teachers  to  provide  opportunities  for  guiding  their  pupils  in 
the  cultivation  of  this  habit.  No  cut-and-tried  directions 
can  be  set  down  for  doing  this,  however.  Each  subject  of 
study  and  the  everyday  experiences  of  the  classroom  will 
furnish  opportunities  which  the  resourceful  teacher  can 
make  use  of  for  this  purpose.  To  this  end  the  teacher  should 
utilize  the  occasions  offered  by  encouraging  pupils  to  ana- 
lyze the  cause  and  effect  relations  in  their  common  experi- 
ences, in  the  natural  phenomena  about  them,  and  in  the  in- 
cidents of  their  everyday  observations.  The  subjects  of  the 
curriculum  should  be  so  presented  as  to  call  for  an  exercise 
of  the  thinking  and  reasoning  powers  of  the  pupils  for  the 
making  of  comparisons  and  the  discovering  of  relations, 
similarities,  and  differences  in  the  world  about  them,  rather 
than  for  a  mere  repetition  of  memorized  facts.  History, 
geography,  and  the  sciences,  as  well  as  mathematics,  are 
rich  in  thought-provoking  matter;  and  these  subjects  should 
be  skillfully  used  by  the  teacher  in  helping  pupils  to  develop 
the  power  to  think  and  reason,  and  to  find  out  things  for 
themselves.  By  this  means  pupils  will  become  gradually 
more  and  more  independent  of  the  teacher's  help  in  the  ac- 
quisition of  knowledge  and  in  the  solution  of  the  questions 
that  are  continually  confronting  them.  They  will  develop  the 
habit  of  making  use  of  their  experiences  and  knowledge  in 
meeting  new  situations  and  in  their  efforts  to  properly  react 
to  their  environment. 


CORRECT  CONCEPTS  155 

SUGGESTED   READINGS 

Principles  of  Education,  Greenwood,  pp.  2-8. 
Modem  Methods  for  Teachers,  Boyer,  pp.  83-97. 
Better  Schools,  Gregory,  pp.  48-52. 
Principles  of  Teaching,  Thorndike,  pp.  158-64. 
Everyday  Problems  in  Teaching,  O'Shea,  pp.  104-65. 
Psychology  and  Psychic  Culture,  Halleck,  pp.  224,  231. 
How  to  Teach,  Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  pp.  104-26. 
The  Mind  and  its  Education,  Belts,  pp.  143-61. 

EXERCISES 

1.  "  Thinking  is  a  comparison  of  concepts,  and  reasoning  is  a  compari- 
son of  judgments."  Form  a  question  in  geography  that  would  require 
thought  to  answer.  Form  a  question  on  any  subject  that  would  re- 
quire a  person  to  reason  in  order  to  answer  it. 

2.  State  whether  you  are  in  the  habit  of  comparing  objects  as  you 
see  them.  Tell  whether  you  notice  similarities  and  differences  in 
persons  and  things.  The  power  to  recognize  similar  elements  is 
necessary  in  order  to  become  expert  in  classification.  The  ability  to 
discover  differences  is  required  in  order  to  be  skillful  in  making  sub- 
classifications.  For  example,  the  common  elements  in  a  certain  class 
of  plants  determines  the  family,  one  of  which  is  known  as  the  Rosacea 
family.  The  differences  in  the  plants  of  the  same  family  determines 
the  sub-classes,  as,  the  rose,  the  apple,  the  peach,  and  other  plants 
belonging  to  the  Rosacea  family. 

3.  Name  the  common  elements  in  the  words  classified  as  verbs.  Name 
some  differences  of  these  same  words  and  give  the  sub-classes. 

4.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  statement,  "  The  person  who  has  never 
done  thinking  never  begins  doing." 

5.  "  A  soul  is,  as  it  were,  tinged  with  the  color  and  complexion  of  its 
thoughts."  Discuss  this  statement  briefly,  considering  whether  it  is 
true  in  the  case  of  persons  whom  you  know  well.  Give  definite  rea- 
sons for  your  opinions. 

6.  Discuss  some  teacher  who  seemed  to  be  satisfied  with  the  objective 
results  of  his  teaching.  Think  of  some  teacher  you  have  had  that 
helped  you  subjectively  — •  that  gave  you  new  interests,  new  purposes, 
new  resolutions,  new  ambition.  Tell  which  was  the  better  teacher 
and  why. 

7.  Write  out  the  definitions  of  the  following  terms:  Simple  number, 
simple  fraction,  decimal  fraction,  river,  noun,  participle. 

8.  Make  a  table  showing  fields  of  interest  that  might  be  suggested  by 
making  a  linen  dress.  Name  at  least  twenty  concepts  that  might  be 
developed. 


156  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

9.  In  the  light  of  this  chapter,  which  of  the  two  subjects,  Greek  or 
manual  training,  would  be  the  more  valuable  if  each  were  equally 
well  taught?   Give  reason  for  your  answer. 

10.  Which  do  you  think  has  given  you  the  more  correct  concepts  — 
your  life  in  school  or  your  life  outside  of  school?  Discuss  this  ques- 
tion.  Show  how  each  might  have  contributed  more  to  your  life. 

11.  Consider  whether  the  home  or  the  school  is  responsible  for  your 
church  faith;  for  your  politics,  for  your  attitude  toward  people;  for 
your  outlook  upon  life.  Tell  whether  school  life  has  changed  your 
manners;  your  companionship;  your  reading.  Tell  some  things 
school  life  has  done  for  you. 

12.  "Form  the  habit  of  observing,  comparing,  and  deciding.  Note  simi- 
larities, note  differences,  —  think."  .  Give  some  applications  of  this 
command. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  TEACHING  PROCESS 

The  term  teaching  explained.  The  problem  of  education 
in  its  relation  to  the  school  has  been  treated  from  the  stiind- 
point  of  the  pupil.  It  must  also  be  considered  from  that  of 
the  teacher,  for  his  part  in  the  process  by  which  the  pupil 
acquires  knowledge  should  be  understood  by  all  those  who 
are  fitting  themselves  for  the  profession  of  teaching.  The 
importance  of  this  is  the  more  apparent  when  one  considers 
that  the  significance  of  the  term  "  teaching,"  as  applied  to 
the  work  of  the  teacher  and  the  processes  which  it  involves, 
is  not  always  clearly  understood  even  by  those  who  occupy 
the  position  of  teacher.  There  is  so  much  involved  in  the 
process  of  teaching  and  learning  that  it  is  not  possible  fully 
to  understand  just  what  is  meant  by  teaching,  unless  one 
knows  something  regarding  the  directed  acts  of  the  teacher 
that  assist  the  pupil  in  learning  something  he  has  not  known 
before.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  it  is  difficult  to  formulate 
a  concise  and  satisfactory  definition  of  teaching.  For  this 
reason  the  majority  of  writers  on  education  do  not  attempt 
to  give  a  positive  definition  of  what  they  mean  by  teaching. 
They  prefer,  rather,  to  explain  and  discuss  the  various  acts 
involved  in  the  process.  Nor  is  it  desirable  that  the  writer  in 
this  case  give  a  final  definition  of  what  he  understands  by 
teaching,  as  the  purpose  here  is  not  so  much  to  define  terms 
as  to  explain  processes.  Therefore,  without  attempting  to 
formulate  a  definition  that  will  apply  to  all  phases  of  teach- 
ing, it  is  sufficient  in  this  connection  to  state,  as  a  basis  for 
further  discussion,  the  sense  in  which  the  word  is  used.  The 
term  "  teaching"  as  used  in  this  chapter,  applies  to  all  the 


158  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

means  by  which  one  person  dssists  another  in  learning  some- 
thing not  previously  known,  and  in  making  right  use  of  it  after 
it  is  known.  In  this  last  it  has  in  mind  learning  and  thinking 
on  the  part  of  the  learner. 

The  first  law  of  teaching.  In  order  that  a  teacher  may- 
assist  his  pupils  in  learning  something  not  previously  known, 
two  important  conditions  are  necessary :  first,  he  must  under- 
stand the  process  by  which  a  child  acquires  new  facts;  and  \\ 
second,  he  must  know  the  manner  in  which  new  knowledge 
should  be  presented.  It  is  evident  that  a  teacher  must  know 
the  steps  by  which  a  learner  advances  in  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  from  what  is  already  known  upon  a  given  sub- 
ject to  what  is  to  be  learned,  or  he  will  not  understand  the 
importance  of  connecting  or  relating  the  new  matter  to  that 
already  possessed.  He  must  also  be  informed  regarding  the 
pupil's  previous  knowledge  and  experience  as  related  to  the 
subject  to  be  taught,  in  order  that  he  may  be  able  to  con- 
nect the  new  matter  with  the  knowledge  which  the  child  al- 
ready possesses.  With  adequate  information  regarding  the 
contents  of  the  child's  mind  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  build, 
the  teacher  should  be  able  to  relate  new  matter  to  be  taught 
to  the  knowledge  which  the  child  possesses,  in  such  a  way 
that  the  latter  may  interpret  the  new  in  terms  of  the  old.  To 
express  the  matter  more  briefly,  it  may  be  stated  simply  that 
all  teaching  must  be  related  to  the  knowledge  and  experiences  of' 
the  learner.  This  concise  and  oft-quoted  statement  is  some- 
times referred  to  as  the  first  law  of  teaching.  It  is  justly  given 
this  place;  for  it  is  second  to  none  in  order  of  importance,  and 
it  should  be  first  in  the  order  of  sequence. 

The  whole  body  of  knowledge  which  the  different  chil- 
dren in  the  school  have  gained  through  personal  experience 
from  their  environment  may  be  interpreted  or  translated 
by  the  teaching  process  into  universal  experiences  and  race 
facts;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  universal  experiences  may  be 


THE  TEACHING  PROCESS  169 

interpreted  and  understood  by  these  personal  experiences. 
This  being  true,  the  value  of  the  child's  previous  experiences 
and  knowledge  and  the  use  of  these  by  the  teacher  in  the 
teaching  process  cannot  be  overestimated.  The  more  varied 
and  extensive  his  experiences  may  have  been,  the  more 
readily  will  he  grasp  the  facts  of  world  experiences  in  his  ac- 
quisition of  knowledge.  Hence  in  all  teaching  the  teacher 
should  make  the  previous  experiences  and  knowledge  of  the 
child  the  starting-point  for  presenting  new  facts  and  in- 
formation. That  all  true  teaching  relates  new  matter  to  the 
experiences  of  the  child  is  an  educational  maxim  that  should 
be  understood  and  followed  by  all  teachers. 

Law  applies  to  teaching  in  all  departments.  The  use  of 
the  expression  "  all  teaching,"  in  the  statement  of  the  law  of 
teaching,  is  significant  and  comprehensive.  It  indicates  that 
the  law  applies  to  teaching  in  all  departments  from  the  pri- 
mary grades  through  the  high  school  and  the  college.  It 
applies  to  the  teaching  of  all  subjects;  to  the  teaching  of  his- 
tory and  literature  as  truly  as  to  the  teaching  of  science  and 
mathematics.  It  is  equally  true  in  the  case  of  individual  in- 
struction and  of  instruction  in  class.  In  short,  it  applies  to 
every  kind  of  deliberate  effort  on  the  part  of  one  person  to 
cause  another  to  learn  something  not  previously  known. 
Every  teacher  or  instructor,  whether  in  the  day  or  the  Sun- 
day school,  in  the  home  or  in  any  institution,  will  find  that 
the  law  applies  to  his  teaching. 

The  point  at  which  instruction  begins.  Instruction  or 
teaching,  like  learning,  logically  commences  where  the  learner's 
knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be  taught  ends.  The  teacher  should 
be  conscious  of  this  fact,  in  order  that  the  effort  to  assist  an- 
other in  acquiring  new  knowledge  may  begin  at  the  right 
place.  A  proper  beginning  is  an  important  element  in  the  / 
teaching  process  and  therefore  deserves  particular  attention.  ^ 
It  is  evident  that  unless  a  right  beginning  is  made,  no  satis- 


160  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACfflNG 

factory  result  can  be  expected.  Unfortunately  many  teachers 
ignore  this  fact,  either  from  carelessness  or  ignorance,  and 
do  not  take  the  trouble  to  inform  themselves  as  to  the  knowl- 
edge which  the  pupil  already  possesses.  As  a  result  they  do 
not  relate  the  new  matter  to  the  old  by  beginning  instruction 
upon  a  new  subject  at  the  point  where  the  child's  knowledge 
ends.  Hence  their  teaching  is  a  haphazard  process,  which 
has  no  definite  starting-place  and  therefore  leads  to  no  par- 
ticular goal. 

Without  a  definite  understanding  of  the  learner's  previous 
knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be  taught,  the  teacher  is  in 
danger  of  committing  one  or  the  other  of  two  blunders. 
Either  the  matter  presented  may  not  be  new  to  the  child, 
and  hence  will  not'cause  him  to  learn  something  not  already 
known,  or  it  may  be  so  remotely  related  to  his  previous 
knowledge  that  he  cannot  interpret  the  new  by  means  of  the 
old.  For  this  reason,  much  of  the  so-called  teaching  is  not 
teaching  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term.  It  is  not  helping  the 
pupil  to  learn  something  not  already  known.  It  does  not 
lead  either  to  the  acquisition  of  related  new  knowledge  or  to 
mental  development  and  growth. 

Misdirected  effort  in  teaching  illustrated.  As  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  failure  of  many  teachers  to  begin  instruction  at 
the  right  point,  the  teaching  of  history  furnishes  many  ex- 
amples. The  failure  here  is  the  result  of  the  tiresome  repeti- 
tions of  old  matter  which  the  child  already  knows,  instead  of 
presenting  to  him  that  which  is  new.  In  far  too  many  cases 
the  effort  is  expended  upon  dull  reviews  and  mechanical 
tests  by  means  of  questions  asked  many  times  before,  and 
upon  topics  already  worn  threadbare  by  both  teachers  and 
pupils.  Under  the  guidance  of  thoughtless  teachers,  Colum- 
bus discovers  America  over  and  over  again  every  year  dur- 
ing the  six  or  seven  years  that  the  child  reads  the  story  of 
American  history.  During  the  same  number  of  years  in  the 


THE  TEACHING  PROCESS  161 

child's  school  experience,  the  Pilgrims  journey  annually  from 
England  to  Holland  and  thence  to  the  bleak  winter  coast  of 
Massachusetts.  Similarly  other  familiar  topics  from  the 
history  of  our  country  are  gone  over  many  times  during 
the  early  years  of  the  child's  school  attendance.  The  study 
of  grammar  is  rendered  dull  and  irksome  by  the  monot- 
onous repetitions  of  memorized  deJSnitions  of  the  parts  of 
speech  and  their  modifications.  The  geography  recitation  is 
made  lifeless  by  the  mechanical  drills  upon  the  names  and 
location  of  cities,  about  which  no  new  or  interesting  in- 
formation is  given.  Such  methods  of  presentation  of  the 
branches  being  studied  do  not  make  the  learner's  previous 
knowledge  the  starting-point  for  the  acquisition  of  new  mat- 
ter. It  is  not  teaching  him  something  new,  but  is  really 
testing  the  information  which  he  already  possesses.  It  is  no 
wonder  that  children  find  such  instruction  dull  and  tiresome 
and  the  road  to  knowledge  a  very  unattractive  one  to  fol- 
low. Such  attempts  at  giving  instruction  are  not  in  the  true 
sense  teaching;  they  are  not  causing  the  child  to  learn  some- 
thing which  he  did  not  know  before. 

Many  illustrations  similar  to  these  might  be  given  to  show 
the  common  practice  of  teachers  in  presenting  various 
branches  of  study  to  their  pupils.  If  teachers  in  general 
would  make  a  careful  and  thorough  analysis  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  lessons  which  they  assign  and  of  the  questions 
which  they  ask  their  pupils  upon  these  lessons,  they  would 
often  be  surprised  to  find  that  much  of  what  they  supposed 
was  teaching  was  not  an  intelligent  and  well-directed  effort 
to  aid  their  pupils  in  learning  something  not  already  known. 
In  many  cases  they  would  discover  that  the  nature  of  the 
lessons  assigned  shows  that  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
given  is  the  memorizing  of  certain  formal  information  con- 
tained in  the  textbook.  They  would  discover  that  the  ques- 
tions and  discussion  upon  the  lesson  in  the  recitation  are 


162  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

directed  less  to  the  acquisition  and  understanding  by  the 
pupils  of  new  knowledge  than  to  the  teacher's  finding  out 
how  much  of  this  formal  information  the  child  has  succeeded 
"  in  cramming  into  his  brain."  A  careful  examination  by  the 
conscientious  teacher  of  his  work  will  reveal  the  fact  that  in 
a  large  number  of  cases  there  is  not  enough  effort  expended 
at  the  point  where  teaching  should  begin  and  too  much  is 
devoted  to  testing  the  pupil's  power  to  repeat  facts  which  he 
has  memorized.  Testing  has  a  place  in  the  process  of  educa- 
tion, as  will  be  shown  in  the  chapter  on  the  recitation,  but 
it  should  not  take  the  place  of  teaching,  nor  should  it  be 
mistaken  for  it. 

The  pupil's  previous  knowledge.  The  teacher  must  be  in- 
formed regarding  the  pupil's  previous  knowledge  and  ex- 
periences, as  related  to  a  new  subject  to  be  taught,  before  he 
can  intelligently  and  effectively  connect  or  relate  the  new 
matter  to  the  old.  The  necessity  for  an  instructor  having 
this  information  is  equally  important  for  the  teacher  in  the 
elementary  school,  in  the  high  school,  and  in  the  college. 
Attention  is  called  to  this  fact  for  the  reason  that  the  notion 
seems  to  prevail  that  it  is  necessary  only  for  the  teacher  in 
the  elementary  grades  to  be  acquainted  with  the  amount  and 
kind  of  information  which  the  child  may  have  acquired  from 
exijerience  and  environment,  from  the  school,  and  from  vari- 
ous other  sources.  The  too  frequent  practice,  on  the  part  of 
teachers  in  the  higher  grades,  of  ignoring  or  neglecting  the 
pupil's  previous  knowledge  indicates  the  prevalence  of  this 
mistaken  idea.  It  should  be  corrected,  for  it  is  as  necessary 
that  instruction  in  the  higher  branches  of  learning  should 
be  related  to  the  knowledge  and  experiences  of  the  learner 
as  it  is  in  the  case  of  instruction  in  the  elementary  branches, 
and  with  adult  as  well  as  with  juvenile  learners.  For  this 
reason  it  is  evident  that  whenever  the  teacher  fails  to  in- 
form  himself  regarding  the  pupil's  previous  knowledge, 


THE  TEACHING  PROCESS  163 

his  teaching  must  of  necessity  be  faulty  and  lacking  in 
effitiency. 

Teaching  should  correct  wrong  concepts.  The  teacher 
must  be  informed  regarding  the  pupil's  previous  knowledge, 
for  the  added  reason  that  children  often  possess  imperfect 
or  incorrect  concepts  which  must  be  corrected  before  they  can 
properly  interpret  the  new  matter.  Therefore  the  teacher, 
before  presenting  the  new  matter,  should  find  out  whether 
the  child  has  the  right  ideas  and  concepts  to  which  this  new 
material  may  be  related.  The  importance  of  this  point  is 
shown  by  the  results  of  experiments  that  have  been  carried 
on  by  educators  who  have  made  special  investigations  along 
this  line.  These  experiments  reveal  the  fact  that  children 
often  have  the  most  erroneous  concepts  of  the  commonest 
objects.  G.  Stanley  Hall  gives  an  instructive  report  regard- 
ing the  results  of  a  test  of  this  kind  which  was  given  a  group 
of  city  children  uj^on  their  entrance  to  school.  Their  igno- 
rance upon  the  best-known  phenomena  of  nature  was  sur- 
prising. That  oats  grow  on  oak  trees,  that  butter  is  made 
from  buttercups,  that  flour  is  made  from  beans,  that  a  cow 
says  bow-bow  and  is  no  larger  than  a  mouse  (seen  only  in 
the  picture  book),  that  potatoes  grow  on  trees,  that  cheese 
is  squeezed  butter,  were  some  of  the  answers  given;  and 
others  were  equally  absurd.  Doubtless  a  group  of  country 
children  would  have  been  equally  ignorant  of  the  objects 
and  the  activities  familiar  to  the  city  child. 

It  is  a  self-evident  fact  that  children  are  best  acquainted 
with  the  things  which  they  see  and  handle.  It  is  therefore 
important  that  they  be  furnished  with  experiences  neces- 
sary for  becoming  familiar  with  the  objects  which  they 
should  know.  Since  children  must  of  necessity  interpret  new 
facts  and  ideas  in  terms  of  those  which  they  already  have, 
it  is  important  that  they  have  correct  and  accurate  concepts 
through  which  to  interpret  the  new.  Therefore  the  teacher 


164  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

should  test  the  correctness  of  the  knowledge  which  the  pupil 
already  has  upon  a  given  subject  before  presenting  the  new, 
and  should  supply  the  needed  concepts  through  concrete 
examples  when  possible. 

Means  of  teaching  children  useful  concepts.  The  poverty 
of  the  average  child's  concepts  upon  entering  school  shows 
the  importance  of  parents  providing  their  children  with  the 
opportunities  for  gaining  experience  with  material  things. 
Many  of  these  come  unsought  in  the  regular  round  of  daily 
tasks  and  amusements,  and  they  should  not  be  neglected. 
These  natural  opportimities  may  be  added  to  by  a  variety 
of  means.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned :  making  a  garden 
or  caring  for  a  window-box,  mowing  and  raking  a  lawn,  using 
carpenter's  tools  in  the  building  of  a  play-house  or  a  shelter 
for  some  pet  animal,  assisting  in  the  various  kinds  of  house- 
work, taking  care  of  a  domestic  animal,  or  performing  some 
other  simple  occupation  in  or  about  the  house.  The  trans- 
action of  small  business  matters,  such  as  purchasing  and 
making  change,  receiving  and  keeping  an  account  of  the 
expenditure  of  a  small  weekly  allowance,  and  many  other 
means  which  the  resourceful  parent  may  devise,  will  furnish 
abundant  opportunities  for  gaining  some  experience  of  busi- 
ness processes.  Whenever  possible,  the  child's  experience 
should  be  extended  beyond  his  immediate  environment  by 
trips  to  the  park  and  zoological  gardens,  to  museums,  to  the 
stores,  to  factories,  and  to  other  places  where  he  can  see 
various  kinds  of  industrial  work  in  progress.  In  fact  he 
should  be  taken  to  all  places  within  reach  where  he  will  have 
an  opportunity  to  add  to  his  experiences  and  to  gain  useful 
information  first-hand.  In  the  case  of  city  children  occa- 
sional trips  to  the  country  are  valuable;  and  in  that  of  coun- 
try children  visits  to  the  city  are  of  equal  interest  and  profit. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  extend  further  the  enumeration  of 
the  means  by  which   parents   and   teachers  may  enlarge 


THE  TEACHING  PROCESS  165 

the  children's  opportunities  for  gaining  first-hand  experi- 
ences and  knowledge.  Every  person  who  will  give  the  sub- 
ject a  little  consideration  will  discover  innumerable  ways  for 
providing  such  opportunities.  There  is  no  home  so  barren 
and  no  locality  so  lacking  in  interesting  activities  as  not  to 
afford  some  opportunities  for  the  child  to  gain  direct  ex- 
perience with  material  things,  that  will  serve  as  a  basis  for 
understanding  fundamental  race  experiences  and  acquiring 
information  regarding  them.  It  is  true  that  many  homes 
cannot  provide  as  large  a  number  of  such  opportunities  as 
others  can.  Therefore  the  school  must  supplement  the  work 
of  the  home  in  this  as  in  many  other  of  its  neglected  duties. 
The  work  of  the  school  is  often  so  seriously  handicapped  be- 
cause of  children's  limited  experiences  with  materials  out- 
side of  the  school  that  it  is  really  necessary  for  the  school  to 
provide  opportunities  for  pupils  gaining  the  needed  concepts 
and  information.  To  satisfy  this  need,  games,  occupations, 
manual  training,  and  various  kinds  of  exercises  with  ma- 
terials are  used  to  give  basal  concepts  that  are  necessary  for 
an  understanding  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  curriculum. 
Selection  of  subject-matter  for  presentation.  An  im- 
portant element  in  the  preparation  which  the  teacher  must 
make  for  teaching  a  particular  lesson  is  the  selection  of  the 
subject-matter  to  be  presented  to  the  pupils.  The  fact  that 
an  instructor  is  required  at  all  indicates  that  the  learner  has 
a  need  which  he  cannot  satisfy  without  help.  The  young 
learner  does  not,  in  any  large  measure,  understand  his  own 
needs  nor  how  to  satisfy  them.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
that  the  teacher  should  understand  the  real  needs  of  his 
pupils  and  be  able  to  select  and  present  the  material  through 
which  these  needs  may  be  fully  satisfied.  In  order  to  do  this 
effectively,  the  teacher  must  understand  the  educational 
needs  of  children  and  learners  in  general;  and  he  must  know 
individual  needs,  capacity,  and  previous  experiences. 


1C6  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

It  is  apparent  that  the  teacher  must  be  properly  fitted  for 
his  task  and  his  preparation  for  it  must  be  broad  and  thor- 
ough, in  order  that  he  may  rightly  estimate  the  individual 
needs  of  his  pupils  and  be  able  to  select  intelligently  the  sub- 
ject-matter through  which  these  needs  may  be  best  satisfied. 
A  mere  knowledge  of  the  common  branches  is  not  sufficient 
preparation  for  one's  becoming  an  instructor  and  guide  of 
the  young  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  in  gaining 
the  intellectual  equipment  for  life.  It  is  evident  that  the 
teacher  must  have  more  knowledge  of  the  subjects  to  be 
taught  than  he  expects  to  impart  to  his  pupils.  He  must  be 
prepared  to  answer  fully  the  questions  that  arise  when  these 
answers  will  help  the  pupils  to  gain  a  clearer  understanding 
of  the  subject.  He  should  have  a  fuller  knowledge  than  that 
which  the  young  learner  is  expected  to  gain,  in  order  to  be 
able  to  add  such  practical  information  as  will  increase  the 
pupil's  interest  and  add  to  the  knowledge  he  has  gleaned 
from  the  text. 

Right  estimate  of  values  in  selection  of  subject-matter. 
Many  persons  commit  great  blunders  in  making  selection 
in  various  matters  because  of  ignorance  and  lack  of  under- 
standing of  values  and  fitness.  No  one  should  presume  to 
act  as  judge  upon  any  matter  of  importance  until  he  has  cor- 
rect and  definite  knowledge  of  the  elements  and  characteris- 
tics by  which  values  in  that  subject  are  determined.  For 
example,  a  judge  of  engines  must  know  engines  well,  must 
know  the  elements  or  characteristics  that  make  engines 
valuable.  A  judge  of  horses  must  understand  all  the  points 
that  a  good  horse  possesses.  Definite  knowledge  is  necessary 
in  order  to  make  a  correct  decision  or  to  give  an  expert  judg- 
ment in  any  matter.  Thus  a  teacher  is  expected  to  be  an  ex- 
pert judge  in  matters  relating  to  the  teaching  process.  To 
him  is  delegated  the  task  of  selecting  the  material  that  is  to 
be  used  by  his  pupils  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  in  the 


THE  TEACHING  PROCESS  1G7 

formation  of  ideals,  and  in  the  building  of  character.  In 
short,  to  the  teacher  is  given  the  responsibility  of  selecting 
the  educational  material  that  is  to  be  used  in  the  making  of 
an  individual  and  a  citizen.  Moreover,  the  teacher  must 
thus  select,  not  for  one  child  alone,  but  for  a  large  number  of 
children  of  different  temperaments,  of  different  capacities,  of 
varied  antecedents  and  environments,  and  of  various  dis- 
positions. In  order  to  meet  this  great  responsibility,  the 
teacher  must  have  a  clear  understanding  of  those  elements 
that  determine  values  as  well  as  a  broad  knowledge  of  the 
subject-matter  and  of  the  nature  and  needs  of  the  child.  To 
no  other  human  being,  perhaps,  is  there  delegated  such 
varied  and  responsible  duties. 

Sequence  in  material  presented.  The  teacher  must  know 
the  needs  of  his  pupils  in  order  that  he  may  select  from  the 
fields  of  science,  mathematics,  literature,  art,  and  nature  the 
facts  which  his  pupils  require  for  immediate  use  and  for  their 
subsequent  work.  In  making  this  selection  of  subject-ma- 
terial, the  question  with  which  the  teacher  is  primarily  con- 
cerned is  not  what  will  interest  a  particular  child  or  group  of 
children,  but  what  is  the  next  thing,  and  the  next,  in  the 
proper  advancement  of  the  child  in  the  field  of  knowledge, 
and  what  is  necessary  for  the  logical  development  of  the  sub- 
ject under  consideration  according  to  the  sequence  of  right 
growth.  To  be  able  to  answer  these  questions  satisfactorily, 
the  teacher  must  understand  the  order  of  the  child  develop- 
ment; he  must  know  the  probable  degree  of  development  at  a 
given  time  and  under  given  conditions ;  and  he  must  be  able 
to  determine  the  kind  of  subject-material  required  at  each 
stage  of  his  development.  The  teacher  must  have  a  broad 
knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be  presented,  in  order  that,  in 
selecting  the  material  to  be  used,  he  may  choose  that  which 
best  suits  the  child's  mental  growth  at  a  given  period. 
Hence  the  teacher  must  be,  as  Superintendent  Soldan  has 


168  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

said,  "  an  adapter,  not  an  adopter."  He  must  know  how  to 
adapt  the  subject-matter  and  the  teaching  to  the  child. 

Use  of  subject-matter  and  the  learning  process.  A  brief 
consideration  of  the  nature  of  the  four  steps  in  the  learning 
process  as  stated  by  Arnold  Tompkins  will  show  how  the 
teacher  should  select  and  use  subject-matter  with  reference 
to  these  steps  and  to  the  order  in  which  they  are  taken.  The 
four  steps  named,  in  the  terse  and  direct  statement  of  this 
well-known  educator  as  already  quoted,  are,  "  The  child  per- 
ceives, he  likes,  he  desires,  he  will  have."  Naturally,  if  the 
child,  upon  perceiving  the  new  object,  does  not  like  it,  he  will 
not  desire  it,  and  therefore  he  will  not  put  forth  an  effort  to 
attain  or  to  have  it.  Hence  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  the  nature  of  the  first  step  be  such  as  to  lead  him  to  like 
the  new  thing.  If  he  does  not,  he  will  not  desire  it,  and  there 
will  be  no  acquisition  of  knowledge.  For  this  reason,  and 
because  the  teacher  is  largely  responsible  for  the  manner  in 
which  these  steps  are  taken  by  the  learner,  he  should  make  it 
his  particular  care  to  see  that  they  are  taken  properly.  In 
the  first  step  the  child  perceives  the  thing  which  is  brought 
into  his  consciousness.  Therefore,  at  the  very  beginning  of 
the  teaching  process,  the  teacher  must  present  to  the  child 
from  the  great  mass  of  world  facts,  the  ones  that  are  most 
desirable  and  most  suitable  in  each  particular  case.  These 
he  must  present  in  such  a  way  that  the  child  will  take  the 
second  step  as  a  necessary  result  of  the  first,  when  the  re- 
maining steps  will  be  taken  as  a  consequence  of  the  second, 
and  the  learning  process  will  be  completed. 

Presentation  of  subject.  The  first  step  of  the  learning 
process  makes  it  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  jjresent  to  the 
child  the  material,  the  fact,  or  the  idea  which  he  has  chosen 
for  the  lesson  exercise.  This  requires  a  peculiar  skill  and 
ability  on  the  part  of  the  teacher;  for  unless  he  presents  the 
selected  material  in  such  a  manner  that  the  children  will  be 


THE  TEACmNG  PROCESS  169 

pleased  and  attracted  by  it,  they  will  not  like  it.  In  other 
words,  they  will  not  take  the  second  step  in  the  learning  pro- 
cess. No  matter  how  valuable  may  have  been  the  material 
which  the  teacher  has  selected,  unless  it  is  presented  in  a 
way  to  interest  the  pupils  in  it,  so  that  they  will  like  it,  the 
effort  of  the  teacher  will  be  practically  lost.  Hence  the  rela- 
tion of  teaching  to  the  second  step  in  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  is  of  vital  importance  and  is  the  one  that  makes 
professional  study  and  training  desirable  and  necessary. 

This  phase  of  teaching  bears  much  the  same  relation  to 
the  pupils  as  the  cooking  of  food  does  to  those  who  are  to 
partake  of  it.  The  raw  material  may  be  of  the  best  quality; 
but  if  it  is  not  properly  prepared,  it  may  not  please  those  to 
whom  it  is  offered,  and  may  even  prove  distasteful  to  them. 
Similarly,  the  teacher  may  prepare  and  present  the  best  and 
most  useful  subject-matter  so  poorly  and  so  unattractively 
that  his  pupils  may  not  be  interested  in  it  and  may  even  dis- 
like it.  This  matter  is  of  great  importance,  and  should  re- 
ceive more  attention  than  is  usually  given  to  it  by  teachers. 
It  is  for  the  instruction  of  teachers  in  the  best  methods  of 
preparing  and  presenting  the  subject-matter  to  the  learner 
that  training  schools  for  teachers  have  been  established. 

Wrong  presentation  results  in  waste.  Since  all  teaching 
must  be  related  to  the  previous  experience  and  knowledge  of 
the  learner,  it  is  obvious  that  the  new  material  being  pre- 
sented must  in  all  cases  be  made  to  relate  to  something 
which  the  learner  already  understands.  Unless  this  is  done, 
some  part  of  the  learning  process  may  be  omitted  or  be  de- 
fective, and  the  learning  will  be  faulty  or  incomplete  in  con- 
sequence. Thus,  the  failure  of  the  teacher  to  make  use  of  the 
experience  and  previous  knowledge  of  the  child  results  in 
great  waste  of  time  and  effort  in  the  teaching  process.  When 
this  kind  of  teaching  is  continued  day  after  day,  it  cannot 
but  result  in  superficial  and  unsatisfactory  acquisition  of 


170  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

knowledge  upon  which  to  base  future  study  and  effort.  Un- 
fortunately, when  this  condition  exists,  both  teacher  and 
pupils  are  ignorant  of  the  fact;  and  hence  assume  that  the 
desired  purpose  has  been  attained  in  the  satisfactory  and 
complete  acquisition  of  the  subject-matter  presented. 

A  concrete  example  will  serve  to  illustrate  how  the  failure 
of  a  teacher  to  make  use  of  the  experience  of  the  child  will 
result  in  waste  of  time  and  endeavor.  A  young  woman  who 
had  spent  her  childhood  and  early  womanhood  upon  a  farm 
in  the  Middle  West,  became  the  teacher  of  a  fifth-grade  class 
in  a  lumbering  town  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan.  Nat- 
urally the  actual  experiences  and  observations  of  her  pupils 
were  limited  to  the  community  in  which  they  lived,  where  a 
large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  were  engaged  in  some 
branch  of  the  lumbering  business.  The  fathers  of  many  of 
these  children  were  in  the  woods  during  the  winter  months, 
either  engaged  themselves  in  the  cutting  and  transporting 
of  the  logs  to  the  nearest  river  or  in  directing  the  process. 
If  the  children  did  not  actually  see  this  phase  of  the  lumber- 
ing, they  had  a  fairly  good  understanding  of  it  from  the  re- 
peated accounts  of  the  work  which  they  heard  from  their 
fathers.  In  the  spring,  when  the  logs  were  brought  down  the 
river,  the  children  saw  the  great  rafts  or  the  large  quantity 
of  loose  logs  with  which  the  river  was  filled  at  this  season. 
They  saw  also  how  the  men  with  long  pike-poles  guided  the 
logs  down  the  current  of  the  stream  toward  the  sorting  gap 
where  other  persons  measured,  marked,  and  recorded  the 
number  and  size  of  the  logs,  together  with  the  names  of  their 
various  owners.  The  children  also  had  the  opportunity  of 
watching  the  process  of  taking  the  logs  from  the  water  to 
the  mills,  of  the  sawing  of  the  logs  into  lumber,  and  of  the 
sorting  and  piling  of  the  lumber.  Finally,  they  witnessed  the 
loading  of  the  finished  lumber  of  various  kinds  into  the  great 
boats  by  which  it  was  be  taken  to  the  distant  markets. 


THE  TEACHING  PROCESS  171 

The  teacher  understood  equally  well  the  details  of  work 
upon  the  farm  as  she  had  seen  it  performed  during  her  own 
childhood.  She  was  an  unusually  industrious  and  conscien- 
tious teacher  and  tried  to  make  her  teaching  concrete  and 
effective.  She  was  resourceful  in  illustration;  but  her  illus- 
trations were  not  clearly  understood  by  her  pupils  because 
they  were  all  taken  from  her  own  life  and  experience  in  the 
country  on  a  farm.  She  did  not  know  that  a  concrete  illus- 
tration that  does  not  touch  the  experience  and  knowledge  of 
those  to  whom  it  is  given  is  in  reality  abstract  and  hence 
valueless.  She  should  have  taken  illustrations  from  the 
activities  and  life  with  which  her  pupils  were  familiar, 
thus  enabling  them  to  understand  the  applications. 

Preparation.  The  term  "  preparation,"  as  here  used,  has 
to  do  with  the  preparation  by  the  teacher  of  the  child's 
mind  for  the  new  lesson.  Naturally  this  preparation  pre- 
supposes the  statement  of  the  lesson  aim  to  fix  or  focus  the 
thought  of  the  child  upon  the  topic  and  the  subject  that  is 
to  be  presented.  Moreover,  it  helps  to  recall  any  related 
facts  and  ideas  which  the  pupils  may  possess  concerning  the 
subject  and  to  arouse  interest  in  the  new  topic.  Preparation 
as  the  first  step  in  teaching  a  lesson  is  concerned  with  the 
class,  not  as  a  whole,  but  as  individuals.  It  is  concerned 
mainly  with  getting  the  child's  mind  ready  for  the  reception 
of  the  new  subject.  To  do  this  the  teacher  must  ascertain 
what  concepts  and  ideas  bearing  upon  the  subject  to  be  pre- 
sented the  child  already  has.  When  the  concepts  are  wrong 
or  are  imperfect,  he  must  correct  or  supplement  them  as  the 
case  requires,  so  that  through  them  the  child  may  be  able  to 
understand  and  interpret  the  new,  for  the  new  must  always 
be  interpreted  in  terms  of  the  old.  The  resourceful  teacher, 
with  a  knowledge  of  what  should  be  presented,  will  so  modify 
and  vary  his  methods  in  the  preparation  of  the  child's 
mind  as  to  suit  each  individual  case. 


172  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACmNG 

The  teacher's  plan  for  preparing  the  mind  of  the  child 
should  involve  two  clearly  defined  lesson  aims.  The  one  is 
the  result  that  comes  to  the  child  through  the  increase  of 
knowledge,  and  the  other  is  the  development  or  growth  of 
his  real  self.  The  first  is  objective,  the  second  is  subjective. 
No  matter  how  fully  the  objective  aim  may  be  attained,  the 
teaching  is  imperfect  and  incomplete  which  ignores  the  sub- 
jective aim.  The  proper  preparation  of  the  learner's  mind 
for  the  reception  and  understanding  of  new  matter  is  such 
an  important  part  of  the  teaching  process  that  there  can  be 
no  good  teaching  without  it. 

Development  of  the  lesson.  The  development  of  the  les- 
son, as  already  noted,  involves  first  the  presentation  of  the 
new  matter  to  be  taught.  This  should  be  done  in  such  a  way 
that  the  pupil  will  see  its  relation  to  something  which  he  al- 
ready knows.  Then  if  his  mind  has  been  properly  prepared 
for  the  reception  of  the  new,  he  will  be  able  to  understand 
and  interpret  it  by  means  of  the  knowledge  which  he  pos- 
sesses. This  requires  that  the  teacher  connect  the  new 
facts  and  ideas  with  those  which  the  pupil  already  has.  The 
presentation  of  the  new  must  be  clear  and  definite  in  order 
that  the  child  may  take  the  next  step  as  suggested  by  the 
teacher  and  compare  and  group  together  the  new  ideas  and 
facts  with  those  he  possesses.  The  analysis  which  is  involved 
in  this  comparing  process  must  be  carefully  made,  in  order 
that  the  comparison  of  the  new  with  the  old,  and  the  dif- 
ferent facts  and  ideas  of  the  new  with  one  another  may  be 
correct.  Unless  this  is  done,  right  conclusions  will  not  be 
reached.  Since  comparison  is  such  an  important  feature  of 
the  process  of  acquiring  new  knowledge,  it  is  imperative  that 
the  teacher  assist  pupils  in  the  selection  of  correct  standards 
for  comparison  and  see  that  their  conclusions  are  the  result  of 
their  actual  comparisons  and  judgments.  While  directing  the 
pupil  in  the  process  of  comparing  and  discovering  thought 


THE  TEACHING  PROCESS  173 

relations,  the  teacher  should  be  careful  not  to  do  the  think- 
ing for  him,  but  rather  to  lead  him  to  think  for  himself.  As 
a  result  of  the  comparisons  made  by  the  learner,  and  the  dis- 
coveries of  thought  relations  between  the  ideas  and  facts 
relating  to  a  given  subject  which  he  makes,  he  is  ready  to 
form  a  general  conclusion  or  to  state  a  general  rule,  based 
upon  the  thought  relations  which  he  has  discovered.  This  is 
the  generalization,  or  the  conclusion  which  grows  out  of  the 
previous  step  in  the  thinking,  that  of  comparison.  Compari- 
son is  the  analytic  part  of  the  thinking  process,  and  general- 
ization is  the  synthetic  part  in  which  the  particulars  have 
been  brought  together  in  the  statement  of  one  general  truth. 
The  generalization  should  be  the  result  of  the  definite 
lesson  aim,  the  end  toward  which  the  efforts  of  the  teacher 
have  been  du-ected  from  the  beginning  of  the  teaching 
process. 

Application.  The  child  has  advanced  under  the  guidance 
of  the  teacher  from  the  first  statement  of  the  lesson  aim,  the 
beginning  of  interest  in  the  topic  of  the  lesson,  to  the  con- 
clusion of  the  generalization.  A  new  truth  or  fact  has  been 
acquired  or  some  rule  has  been  formulated;  but  this  will 
be  of  little  value  to  him,  unless  he  can  make  a  practical  ap- 
plication of  it  to  concrete  cases  and  connect  or  link  it  to 
his  everyday  need.  A  collection  of  abstract  definitions,  rules, 
and  laws  that  are  not  applied  to  an  individual's  life  and  needs 
would  be  as  useless  as  the  piles  of  lumber  that  are  never  put 
into  use  in  the  building  of  a  structure.  This  final  step  in  the 
teaching  process  which  deals  with  the  application  of  the  new 
matter  to  knowledge  previously  possessed  and  to  the  learn- 
er's practical  needs  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  It  is  evident 
that  facts  and  definitions  can  be  of  little  real  meaning  and 
use  to  a  person  until  he  applies  them  to  concrete  cases  in  his 
own  experience.  The  scientific  statement  of  the  law  that 
governs  the  condensation  of  vapor  into  water  is  vague  and 


174  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

well-nigh  meaningless  to  a  child  until  he  has  learned  to  make 
application  of  it  in  such  phenomena  as  the  water  drops  on 
the  outside  of  a  glass  of  cold  water  and  to  the  falling  rain. 
The  power  of  the  teacher  to  realize  the  subjective  result  of  his 
teaching,  as  shown  by  the  increased  ability  of  his  pupils  to 
make  this  concrete  application  of  what  has  been  learned,  is 
the  supreme  test  of  the  value  of  his  teaching.  Far  too  often 
teaching  stops  at  the  attainment  of  the  objective  result  only, 
because  the  teacher  does  not  understand  that  the  real  pur- 
pose of  instruction  has  not  been  realized  unless  the  subjec- 
tive result  has  been  attained  in  pupils  acquiring  ability  to 
apply  to  their  practical  needs  what  they  have  learned. 

The  formal  steps  in  teaching  illustrated.  As  a  concrete 
example  of  the  manner  in  which  formal  steps  may  be  taken 
in  the  teaching  of  a  lesson,  an  outline  of  an  illustrative  les- 
son in  decimal  fractions  is  given. 

Preparation 

(a)  The  child  —  He  probably  knows  fractions,  in  the  usual  form 
and  language,  and  can  add,  subtract,  multiply,  and  divide 
common  fractions. 

(b)  Subject-matter  — 

(1)  Discussion  of  the  denominators  of  several  fractions  — 

for  example.  ^  |'  |'  ^  4'  T^"  " '^^^^"^  '^^' 
there  is  no  relation  in  the  denominators  of  the  first  group 
and  that  there  is  a  relation  in  the  denominators  of  the 
second  group,  that  they  are  10  and  some  multiple  of  10. 

(2)  To  show  that  the  manner  of  writing  decimal  fractions 
does  not  change  the  fact  that  they  are  decimal  fractions, 
write  several  decimal  fractions  in  different  ways;  as, 

9 

— ,  .9,  nine  tenths.  When  written  with  the  denomina- 
10 

tor  below  the  horizontal  line  they  are  in  the  form  of 

common  fractions.   When  written  with  a  decimal  point, 

they  are  in  the  decimal  form.    In  both  cases  they  are 

decimal  fractions. 


TIIE  TEACraNG  PROCESS  175 

(3)  Use  of  the  decimal  point.  The  period  or  decimal  point, 
as  it  is  called,  is  used  to  indicate  that  the  number  is  a 
decimal  fraction,  and  the  period  is  placed  before  it  to 
show  the  value  of  its  denominator. 

(4)  Laws  and  processes.  Show  that  laws  and  processes  of 
decimal  fractions  are  like  those  of  all  fractions. 

Note  —  The  inductive  process  is  to  be  used  in  1,  2,  and  3. 

Questions  similar  to  the  following  will  prepare  a  child  for  the 
new  topic. 

Suggestive  questions.  What  is  a  proper  fraction,  improper  frac- 
tion, complex  fraction? 

Which  of  the  following  fractions  are  proper,  simple,  complex, 
improper? 

1     1?         I        1      04        - 
3'     9'       "4'        8'         '       f 

What  is  a  multiple?  Give  three  multiples  of  5,  of  4,  of  10. 
Give  the  first  power  of  '■Z,  the  second  power,  the  third  power. 
Give  the  first  power  of  10,  the  second  power. 
How  would  you  find  a  multiple  of  10?   A  power  of  10? 

9  24  14 
Development  —  Presentation.  Write  — ,  — — ,  rr^.  -5.  The  de- 
nominators of  these  fractions  are  10,  100,  1000,  and  10;  all  powers 
of  10.  They  are  all  simple  fractions.  They  are  also  proper  fractions. 
Since  the  denominators  are  powers  of  ten,  they  are  decimal  frac- 
tions. Note  that  the  manner  of  writing  fractions  does  not  change 
their  character.  In  each  of  the  above  cases,  the  fraction  given  is  a 
decimal  fraction  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  simple  fraction  and  a 
proper  fraction.   Sometimes  a  decimal  fraction  is  written  without 

9  9 

its  denominator.  For  example  —  may  be  written  .9;  — —  may  be 

9 
be  written  .09;  rrrr  may  be  written  .009.    The  decimal  point  is 
1000 

used-  to  show  that  each  is  a  decimal  fraction,  and  the  number  of 
figures  to  the  right  of  it  shows  how  many  ciphers  there  are  in  the 
denominator.  The  expression  .3  is  a  decimal  fraction.  The  num- 
erator is  3  and  the  denominator  is  10.  The  expression  .50  is  a  deci- 
mal fraction  of  which  the  numerator  is  26,  and  the  denominator 


176  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

is  100.  The  expression  .134  is  a  decimal  fraction  of  which  the  num- 
erator is  134  and  the  denominator  is  1000. 

In  the  number  12.34,  the  decimal  point  tells  us  that  the  part 
on  the  right  is  a  decimal  fraction,  34  being  the  numerator  and 
100  being  the  denominator. 

Generalization  —  Definition  of  decimal  fraction.  A  decimal  frac- 
tion is  a  fraction  whose  denominator  is  10  or  some  power  of  10. 

Application.  Our  system  of  number  is  a  decimal  system.  Each 
figure  of  a  number  represents  a  value  ten  times  as  great  when  it  is 
moved  one  place  to  the  left  and  only  one  tenth  as  great  when 
moved  one  place  to  the  right.  This  is  true  of  all  fractions  in  the 
decimal  form.  Therefore,  when  decimal  fractions  are  expressed  in 
the  decimal  form,  they  can  be  added,  subtracted,  multiplied,  and 
divided  in  the  same  way  as  whole  numbers.  The  same  principles 
and  rules  hold  true  in  both  cases.  If  decimal  fractions  are  written 
as  common  fractions,  they  maybe  added,  subtracted,  multiplied, 
and  divided  in  the  same  manner  as  common  fractions. 

Illustration.  Add  .5,  .45,  .026,  .7,  .835,  .67,  remembering  that 
tenths  are  written  under  tenths,  hundredths  under  hundredths, 
etc.  Change  the  above  decimal  fractions  to  common  fractions  and 
add.  Tell  whether  you  see  a  reason  for  using  the  decimal  form? 


Teachers  must  know  law  of  teaching.  It  is  important  that 
teachers  should  understand  the  invariable  law  in  the  ac- 
quisition of  knowledge,  in  order  that  they  may  be  careful  to 
relate  new  matter  to  the  experience  and  knowledge  of  their 
pupils  in  such  a  way  that  the  latter  can  understand  it. 
The  fisherman  of  New  Foundland  naturally  interprets 
everything  new  that  is  brought  into  his  consciousness  in 
terms  of  his  own  experiences  in  his  environment,  for  he 
knows  and  understands  only  his  immediate  surroundings 
and  the  life  which  he  lives.  When  he  wishes  to  explain  or 
illustrate  anything  for  the  benefit  of  another  person,  he 
takes  his  illustrations  from  the  sea,  the  cold  hard  winters,  the 
simple  life  of  the  fisherman,  and  the  other  features  of  his 
daily  life.  The  mountaineer  interprets  knowledge  in  terms 
of   his  life  and   surroundings.    The   mountains,   the   deep 


THE  TEACHING  PROCESS  177 

ravines,  the  difficult  ascents,  the  rushing  mountain  streams, 
the  dashing  waterfalls,  and  other  features  of  the  scenery  upon 
which  he  gazes  every  day  furnish  him  with  illustrative  ma- 
terial to  explain  and  interpret  new  facts  and  experiences. 
The  stern,  hard  life  of  the  man  who  knows  only  the  rigorous 
climate  of  the  Far  North  is  very  different  from  that  of  the 
dweller  in  the  tropics,  and  the  experiences  by  which  these 
two  persons  gain  a  knowledge  of  life  and  by  means  of  which 
they  interpret  world  facts  are  altogether  different  in  char- 
acter. The  one,  accustomed  to  battle  with  the  severity  of 
the  climate  and  to  force  the  unwilling  earth  to  yield  him  a 
livelihood,  would  not  understand  the  rich  vegetation,  the 
fruit,  and  the  flowers,  that  grow  unbidden  in  the  sunny  clime 
which  the  other  inhabits.  The  teacher  must  know  that  this 
underlying  principle  appHes  with  equal  force  to  the  child's 
acquisition  of  knowledge. 

The  teacher  must  apply  law  in  his  teaching.  The  different 
conditions  under  which  children  gain  personal  experiences  are 
innumerable;  and  the  teacher,  when  selecting  his  illustrative 
material,  should  bear  this  fact  in  mind  and  choose  his  illus- 
trations from  the  experiences  of  the  children  whom  he  in- 
structs. Even  in  the  same  community  children  who  have 
different  environments  have  widely  different  experiences. 
The  teacher,  knowing  this,  should  investigate  as  far  as  pos- 
sible the  conditions  by  which  his  pupils  are  surrounded,  in 
order  to  discover  the  character  of  the  experiences  and  knowl- 
edge they  have  gained  from  personal  contact  in  their  re- 
spective homes  and  neighborhoods.  The  information,  thus 
acquired,  he  should  make  the  starting-point  from  which  to 
begin  the  presentation  of  new  facts;  and  he  should  use  it  as 
a  basis  from  which  to  draw  illustrative  material  for  the  ex- 
planation and  interpretation  of  new  knowledge. 

Tlie  child's  experiences  include  in  some  form  every  field 
of  information,  science,  mathematics,  history,  literature. 


178  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

music,  and  art.  By  begmning  the  formal  study  of  any  one 
of  these  branches  at  the  point  where  the  child's  knowledge  of 
it  ends  and  using  the  child's  experiences  in  the  explanation  of 
new  facts,  the  teacher  cannot  fail  to  lead  his  pupils  into  any 
one  or  all  of  these  fields  of  knowledge.  To  do  effective  work, 
however,  and  gain  the  desired  results,  he  must  be  careful  to 
observe  the  fundamental  principle  of  growth  and  the  un- 
varying law  which  requires  that  all  true  teaching  must  be 
related  to  the  experience  of  the  learner.  If  he  faithfully  fol- 
lows these  simple  rules  and  observes  these  principles,  the 
result  of  his  teaching  will  be  shown  in  the  subjective  mental 
growth  of  his  pupils  and  in  their  preparation  for  a  proper 
adjustment  to  the  civilization  of  which  they  are  to  become  a 
part.  Thus  he  will  discharge  his  duty  and  make  the  school 
fulfill  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  established. 

Special  preparation  needed  for  effective  teaching.  When 
one  considers  how  great  the  responsibility  of  the  teacher 
really  is,  one  cannot  but  wonder  that  parents  are  ever  udlling 
to  delegate  such  sacred  duties  to  any  person,  without  making 
a  most  searching  test  of  his  ability  and  his  integrity.  Yet 
they  do  delegate  this  responsibility  of  deciding  what  and  how 
their  children  shall  be  taught  and  trained  for  life's  duties  to 
persons  with  whom  they  are  often  not  acquainted,  whom 
they  may  never  have  even  seen,  and  of  whose  preparation  and 
fitness  for  the  task  they  know  practically  nothing.  If  parents 
showed  more  concern  regarding  the  qualifications  of  the 
persons  to  whom  they  intrust  their  sacred  obligations,  there 
would  soon  be  a  marked  improvement  in  the  preparation 
and  qualifications  of  those  who  assume  the  important  du- 
ties of  teachers. 

Again,  when  one  considers  the  character  of  the  duties  that 
are  delegated  to  the  teacher,  one  is  surprised  that  so  many 
persons  are  willing  to  undertake  the  responsibility  of  train- 
ing and  guiding  the  young.  A  physician  is  often  anxious  lest 


THE  TEACHING  PROCESS  179 

his  diagnosis  of  a  case  may  be  incorrect  and  his  treatment 
of  it  be  wrong  in  consequence.  He  knows  that  a  mistake  on 
his  part  may  be  attended  with  undesirable  results  to  his 
patient,  and  he  feels  the  responsibility.  The  physician's 
study  and  practice  are  centered  upon  only  one  phase  of 
man's  welfare,  that  of  the  physical;  the  teacher,  in  a  meas- 
ure, is  concerned  with  the  entire  being  and  must  decide  upon 
what  is  best  for  the  mental  and  spiritual  development  of  his 
pupils,  and  must  direct  the  preparation  for  all  life's  relations. 
LTo  meet  such  a  responsibility  and  fulfill  all  the  requirements 
of  his  position,  the  teacher  must  make  a  careful  and  con- 
scientious preparation  for  the  task.  He  must  spend  much 
time  and  effort  in  gleaning  from  the  various  fields  of  human 
experience  the  needed  material  and  in  adapting  it  to  the 
special  preparation  which  his  particular  case  requires.  The 
person  who  does  completely  and  acceptably  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  the  position  of  teacher  fills  one  of  the  high- 
est places  in  vocational  hfe;  but  the  person  who  ventures  to 
occupy  this  place,  when  he  is  not  fitted  for  it,  invites  the 
most  signal  failure  possible  to  a  human  being,  when  success 
and  failure  are  estimated  in  terms  of  responsibility  and 
service  to  one's  fellow-men. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

How  to  Teach,  Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  pp.  1-13. 

Modem  Methods  for  Teachers,  Boyer,  pp.  44—17. 

Teaching  the  Common  Branches,  Charters. 

Principles  of  Teaching,  Thorndike,  pp.  42-50. 

Principles  of  Teaching,  Harvey,  p.  215. 

Principles  of  Educational  Practice,  Klapper,  pp.  153-61. 

How  to  Teach  the  Fundamental  Subject,  Kendall  and  Mirick. 

Craftsmanship  in  Teaching,  Bagley,  pp.  52-58,  71-73. 

Brief  Course  in  Teaching  Process,  Strayer,  pp.  167-223. 

Psychology  {Briefer  Course),  James,  pp.  34-150. 

Types  of  Teaching,  Earhart,  pp.  38-53;  70-80. 

Education,  Thorndike,  pp.  117-18. 

Tiie  Teacher  and  the  School,  Colgrove,  chap,  xv,  xvi,  xxi. 


180  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING  ' 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  some  reasons  why  teachers  are  necessary. 

2.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term,  "  He  is  a  self-made  man"?  Con- 
sider whether  there  can  be  a  self-made  man  or  woman  at  the  present 
time,  and  defend  your  opinion. 

3.  "  A  textbook  is  the  recorded  approved  experience  of  mankind." 
Explain  as  fully  as  you  can  what  the  statement  means. 

4.  Under  what  class  conditions  can  you  learn  best?  Who  determines 
these  conditions? 

5.  "  A  teacher  must  be  a  guide."  Write  out  fully  what  you  understand 
this  statement  to  mean.   Are  you  prepared  to  be  a  teacher  and  guide? 

6.  Name  some  things  that  indicate  poor  teaching.  Name  some  charac- 
teristics of  a  good  teacher. 

7.  How  many  times  have  you  been  asked  the  following  questions:  2X3 
are  how  many?  What  is  a  noun?  Who  discovered  America?  Give 
other  similar  questions  which  you  were  asked  many  times.  What  crit- 
icism do  such  questions  suggest  of  the  teaching  and  of  the  teachers? 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  sources  of  your  present  knowledge.  Show  that  all 
persons  you  have  known  have  been  in  some  way  your  teachers. 

9.  (1)  "  I  do  not  need  to  prepare  that  lesson.  I  have  taught  it  before."! 

(2)  "  I  am  not  going  to  spend  much  time  in  school.  I  shall  not  teach 
after  this  term." 

(3)  "  This  is  my  last  term.  I  must  make  it  my  best  term." 

(4)  "  I  teach  because  I  need  the  money." 

(5)  "  If  the  class  does  not  pay  attention,  I  go  after  them  with  a  stick." 

(6)  "  If  the  class  is  not  interested,  I  know  I  am  failing." 

(7)  "  You  don't  have  to  know  much  to  teach  that  school." 

(8)  "The  boys  and  girls  are  no  good,  I  can't  do  a  thing  with  them." 
These  are  actual  quotations  of  statements  made  by  persons  who 
were  called  teachers.  Discuss  each  and  tell  what  it  reveals  of  the 
personality  of  the  person  who  made  the  statement. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  RECITATION 

The  recitation  in  the  school  program.  The  child's  school 
day  is  divided  in  the  main  into  study  and  recitation  periods; 
the  former  being,  according  to  the  child's  idea,  a  preparation 
for  the  latter.  Many  teachers  conduct  a  recitation  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  indicate  that  they  hold  much  the  same  view. 
In  the  old-time  custom  of  assigning  lessons  in  a  book,  to  be 
committed  to  memory,  and  of  calling  upon  the  pupils  to  re- 
peat in  answer  to  questions  asked  by  the  teacher  the  words 
and  sentences  thus  memorized,  the  recitation  was  largely  a 
time  for  "  hearing  the  lesson."  It  was  in  fact  what  the  school 
definition  makes  it,  merely  a  rehearsal  or  giving  back  by  the 
pupils  what  they  have  been  able  to  extract  from  the  text- 
books during  the  study  period.  Even  at  the  present  time  in 
maftiy  of  our  schools  it  is  more  of  a  testing  than  of  a  teach- 
ing process.  It  is  too  often  made  an  oral  examination  or  test, 
the  teacher  asking  questions  that  will  reveal  the  number  of 
facts  the  pupils  have  been  able  to  memorize  from  a  prescribed 
number  of  pages  in  their  textbooks.  Such  questions  do  not 
react  upon  any  of  the  mental  faculties  of  the  child  except 
that  of  memory,  and  hence  no  subjective  results  can  be  ex- 
pected from  them.  They  relate  wholly  to  the  memorized 
facts  and  produce  only  objective  results.  Such  a  limited  use 
of  the  recitation  period  is  a  great  waste  of  time  and  effort, 
and  fully  justifies  such  criticism  as  that  of  the  late  Dr. 
Harper  who  considered  the  recitation  as  too  expensive. 

The  value  of  the  recitation.  Opinions  differ  widely  re- 
garding the  value  of  the  recitation  in  the  school  exercises. 
Many  adverse  criticisms  are  heard  concerning  it,  and  some 


182  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

educators  go  so  far  as  to  advocate  doing  away  with  it  alto- 
gether. In  support  of  their  position,  they  point  to  the  great 
loss  of  the  pupil's  time  for  the  reason  that  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  recitation  period  can  be  given  to  each.  They  di- 
rect attention  to  the  common  custom  of  teachers  of  calling 
upon  the  bright  and  ready  pupils  to  do  most  of  the  reciting 
and  neglecting  or  overlooking  the  slow  or  dull  ones.  They 
lay  upon  the  present  recitation  plan  the  responsibihty  for 
such  practices  of  pupils  as  preparing  only  such  portions  of 
the  lesson  as  they  expect  to  be  required  to  recite.  They  cite 
in  proof  of  this  criticism  the  well-kno^-n  practice  of  many 
children  of  skillfully  estimating  the  probable  time  when 
they  will  be  called  upon  to  recite  and  then  relaxing  their 
attention  or  turning  their  thoughts  to  other  and,  to  them, 
more  interesting  matters  as  soon  as  their  turns  have  passed. 
This  custom,  it  is  argued,  in  addition  to  being  a  waste  of 
the  pupil's  time,  is  a  positive  injury  to  his  moral  sense. 

These  and  similar  criticisms  serve  to  call  attention  to  the 
grave  defects  in  the  recitation  plan  as  it  is  usually  conducted, 
and  also  to  the  many  abuses  of  this  important  feature  of 
school  work.  Such  misuse  of  the  recitation  is  much  more 
common  than  might  at  first  be  supposed.  For  example,  the 
custom  of  caUing  upon  the  bright  pupils  to  the  neglect  of 
the  less  ready  reciters  is  surprisingly  prevalent,  even  among 
conscientious  teachers.  Dr.  Strayer,  of  Teachers  College, 
New  York,  in  discussing  this  phase  of  the  abuse  of  the  reci- 
tation, gives  as  a  result  of  his  personal  investigation  that 
often  from  one  fourth  to  two  thirds  of  a  class  were  not  called 
upon  at  all  during  a  recitation  period,  and  that  generally 
three  fourths  or  more  of  the  questions  were  addressed  to  a 
very  small  number  of  the  children  in  the  class.  He  suggests 
that  if  teachers  would  keep  a  record  for  a  few  days  of  the 
number  of  questions  assigned  to  each  child,  the  result 
would  surprise  them  and  at  the  same  time  would  help  to 


THE  RECITATION  183 

explain  the  lack  of  interest  and  the  backwardness  of  many 
pupils.  / 

The  recitation  an  established  feature  of  school  work.'  No 
matter  how  great  are  the  abuses  of  the  recitation,  it  has 
become  so  firmly  established  as  a  feature  of  the  day's  work 
in  the  American  school  that  it  cannot  be  abolished.  No 
amount  of  adverse  criticism  and  discussion  can  change  this 
fact.  Whether  it  does  or  does  not  meet  the  needs  of  mod- 
ern educational  conditions,  there  is  no  other  exercise  that 
would  adequately  take  its  place;  and  therefore  it  cannot 
be  set  aside  altogether.  Granting  that  the  criticisms  of  the 
recitation  as  usually  conducted  in  our  schools  are  fully  justi- 
fied, if  it  must  remain  notwithstanding  these  defects  and 
abuses,  the  question  which  concerns  the  educator  is  what  is  to 
be  done  with  it.  If  it  does  not  fulfill  the  educational  require- 
ments of  the  day,  how  can  it  be  made  to  do  so?  Although  it 
has  many  defects,  it  has  its  advantages  as  well,  or  it  would 
not  remain  in  spite  of  these  defects  as  a  fixed  feature  of  the 
school  program.  It  has  been  called  by  a  noted  educator, 
"  the  gateway  of  opportunity  for  both  teacher  and  pupil." 
It  is  therefore  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  discover  and  im- 
prove the  opportunities  which  it  offers.  He  should  make  it 
the  period  when,  through  his  close  contact  with  his  pupils, 
he  may  give  careful  attention  to  the  workings  of  the  indi- 
vidual child's  mind  and  to  particular  difficulties  and  needs. 
It  would  then  enable  him  to  render  his  pupils  that  assistance 
in  their  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  in  the  moulding  of 
their  character  which  they  are  sent  to  school  to  obtain. 

Recitation  idea  modified  and  extended.  Many  educators, 
who  have  given  much  study  to  the  question  of  the  recita- 
tion and  recognize  the  seriousness  of  the  defects  which  are 
pointed  out  by  the  critics,  are  urging  such  changes  and 
modifications  in  the  manner  of  conducting  it  as  will  make 
it,  what  it  should  be,  the  most  hclplful  period  of  the  school 


184  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

day  to  the  child.  They  would  change  it  from  a  testing  exer- 
cise, when  the  child's  success  in  memorizing  and  repeating 
certain  facts  is  determined  by  means  of  skillful  catch  ques- 
tions, to  a  period  when  pupil  and  teacher  would  be  brought 
into  closer  and  more  helpful  relation  by  studying  together. 
The  recitation  would  then  become  a  teaching  rather  than 
a  testing  period,  when  the  teacher  out  of  his  wide  knowl- 
edge and  experience  could  supplement  the  text  with  help- 
ful information,  illustrations,  and  applications  to  the  ex- 
perience and  knowledge  of  the  pupil.  It  would  afiPord  an 
opportunity  for  teaching  children  how  to  study,  instruction 
that  is  much  needed  for  the  reason  that  comparatively  few 
really  know  how  to  study  an  assigned  lesson  definitely  and 
effectively.  G.  Stanley  Hall  gives  it  as  his  experience  that 
three  fourths  of  the  time  spent  by  a  boy  of  twelve  in  trying 
to  master  a  hard  lesson  out  of  a  book  is  time  thrown  away. 
This  thoughtful  educator  says  that,  "  one  fourth  of  the 
time  may  be  spent  in  desperate  and  conscientious  effort; 
but  that  the  remainder  of  the  time  is  dawdled  away  think- 
ing of  the  last  game  of  ball  or  longing  for  the  next  game  of 
tag." 

The  German  plan  of  recitation.  Some  educators  would 
model  the  recitation  in  our  schools  after  the  German  plan 
of  the  study  recitation,  where  the  teacher  studies  with  the 
children.  With  this  method  less  use  is  made  of  textbooks, 
the  laboratory  method  being  used  with  all  subjects.  This 
plan  is  of  necessity  followed  to  a  great  extent  in  our  own 
schools,  in  the  lower  grades,  where  children  cannot  read 
and  therefore  cannot  prepare  a  lesson  from  a  book.  The  ad- 
vocates of  the  German  method  would  continue  this  recita- 
tion plan  into  the  higher  grades.  They  affirm  in  support  of 
their  theory  that  by  such  a  method  the  child's  perceptive 
and  reasoning  powers  are  exercised  and  that  his  faculties 
are  employed  in  forming  new  concepts  rather  than  in  re- 


THE  RECITATION  185 

producing  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  teacher  the  ones  already 
acquired.  At  the  same  time  the  teacher's  attention  is  di- 
rected toward  the  mental  activity  of  the  child  and  in  deter- 
mining how  to  help  him  to  overcome  his  difficulties  or  to  get 
a  clearer  conception  of  the  lesson  being  studied.  As  proof 
that  the  study  recitation  is  the  most  rational  method,  the 
friends  of  this  plan  point  to  the  surprisingly  short  time  in 
which  children  in  the  primary  grades  learn  the  difficult 
subjects  of  reading,  spelling,  numbers,  and  other  branches 
of  study  before  they  have  learned  to  use  a  printed  text. 

Importance  of  the  recitation.  Many  teachers  regard  the 
recitation  as  the  most  imix)rtant  feature  of  the  school  plan. 
Some  educators  go  so  far  as  to  assert  that  all  considerations 
about  the  schoolhouse,  such  as  lighting,  heating,  the  course 
of  study,  the  branches  studied,  and  all  other  matters  are 
subordinate  to  the  recitation.  This  may  seem  somewhat 
to  exaggerate  its  importance;  but  when  one  considers  that  it 
offers  the  teacher  the  opportunity,  not  merely  to  impart 
knowledge,  but  to  train  the  young  mind  in  correct  habits 
of  thought  and  study,  to  mould  character,  to  inspire  high 
ideals  and  lofty  aspirations,  it  becomes  apparent  that  its 
educative  possibiUties  cannot  be  overestimated.  For  this 
enlarged  conception  of  the  recitation  to  be  realized,  it  must 
include  far  more  than  merely  "  hearing  the  lesson,"  than 
testing  a  child's  memory  of  the  facts  which  he  has  obtained 
from  the  printed  page.  It  must  include  in  its  purpose  most 
of  the  ideals  of  teaching  for  which  the  school  stands. 

Whether  the  teacher  and  pupils  are  conscious  or  not  of 
the  fact,  the  recitation  exerts  a  decided  influence  over  tlie 
latter's  formation  of  school  habits.  According  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  recitation  is  conducted,  it  will  develop  in 
the  learner  right  or  wTong  habits  of  study,  of  thinking,  of 
reciting,  or  of  expressing  ideas  upon  an  assigned  topic.  If 
it  is  conducted  in  such  a  way  as  to  realize  true  educational 


186  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

results  it  will  develop  new  and  larger  interests,  and  it  will 
arouse  the  mental  activity  of  the  child  and  incite  him  to 
greater  effort  in  a  definite  and  well-directed  manner.  More- 
over, it  will  enrich  his  mind  with  much  valuable  information 
and  many  character-building  ideas  not  found  in  the  text- 
book. Finally,  the  recitation  when  properly  conducted  fur- 
nishes the  most  natural  opportunity  for  the  teacher  to  come 
into  vital  touch  with  his  pupils  and  thus  influence  their 
character  building;  in  short  to  mould  them  intellectually 
and  morally. 

Importance  of  proper  aim  in  the  recitation.  In  every  les- 
son to  be  taught  and  every  recitation  to  be  conducted,  there 
should  be  a  definite  and  proper  aim  if  the  teacher  expects 
to  realize  from  the  recitation  any  result  that  will  justify  the 
time  and  effort  expended  in  it.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  there 
be  an  aim;  it  must  be  the  right  aim.  Doubtless  in  every 
recitation,  no  matter  how  poor,  there  is  some  kind  of  an 
aim,  some  particular  concept  to  be  developed,  some  truth 
to  be  estabUshed,  or  some  other  definite  thing  to  be  ac- 
comphshed.  It  does  not  necessarily  follow,  however,  that 
the  aim  or  purpose  is  the  best  or  even  a  suitable  one  for  that 
particular  recitation.  It  may  be  too  large  an  aim  for  the 
material  used,  or  it  may  be  too  deep  or  profound  for  the 
comprehension  of  the  pupils.  It  may  be  too  simple,  or  it 
may  be  too  complex.  It  may  be  the  wrong  aim,  or  it  may 
be  altogether  foreign  to  the  subject  being  treated.  The  gen- 
eral purpose  of  a  recitation  should  apply  directly  to  the  les- 
son being  taught.  It  should  follow  logically  or  should  grow 
out  of  the  previous  lesson  or  study  of  the  subject,  and  it 
should  be  consistent  with  the  plan  of  work  in  the  particular 
branch  of  study. 

The  objects  of  the  recitation.  The  distinct  objects  of  the 
recitation  are  more  varied  and  comprehensive  than  the 
majority  of  teachers  realize.  If  the  real  function  of  the  rcci- 


THE  RECITATION  187 

tation  lesson  and  the  educative  opportunities  which  it 
affords  were  better  understood  by  teachers  in  general,  it 
would  be  more  universally  made  the  most  valuable,  as  well 
as  the  most  prominent  feature  of  our  educational  system. 
Educators  have  given  much  thought  to  the  subject  of  the 
recitation  lesson  and  to  determining  the  definite  objects  to 
be  attained  by  it.  Many,  realizing  the  importance  of  the 
recitation  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  education,  have  de- 
voted the  most  careful  endeavor  to  finding  out  how  the  best 
results  may  be  obtained  during  the  i)eriod  allotted  to  it 
in  the  school  plan.  Some  of  the  conclusions  which  have 
thus  been  reached  may  be  helpful  and  suggestive  at  this 
point. 

Dr.   Hinsdale  enumerates  the  principal  objects  of  the 
recitation  as  — 

^  1.  To  give  pupils  an  opportunity  to  report  what  they  have 
learned  of  the  lesson  that  has  been  assigned. 

2.  To  allow  the  teacher  to  discover  and  correct  the  pupil's  igno- 
rance of  the  lesson. 

8.  To  enable  the  teacher  to  expand  or  add  to  the  pupil's  knowl- 
edge of  the  lesson  or  subject,  by  means  of  a  more  thorough 
discussion  of  the  knowledge  which  the  pupils  have  them- 
selves acquired,  and  by  producing  new  knowledge. 

4.  To  enable  the  teacher  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  next  lesson 
and  recitation.  .  .  .  Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  assign- 
ment of  the  next  lesson,  such  explanation  as  it  may  call  for, 
and  any  special  knowledge  which  the  pupils  may  need  in  the 
ensuing  study  lesson. 

5.  To  enable  the  teacher  to  observe  the  way  in  which  the  pupils 
do  their  work,  and  to  correct  them  when  necessary;  in  other 
words  to  give  the  teacher  the  opportunity  to  see  that,  along 
with  knowledge,  the  pupils  are  also  getting  the  art  of  study. 

6.  To  enable  the  members  of  the  class  to  compare  their  knowl- 
edge and  ideas,  to  bring  their  views  of  the  lesson  together, 
to  supplement  one  another's  knowledge,  —  in  a  word,  to  enter 
into  that  legitimate  emulation  without  which  a  good  school  is 
impossible. 


188  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

Dr.  Harris  gives  the  following  recitation  aims  in  addi- 
tion to  those  named  by  Dr.  Hinsdale :  — 

1.  To  cultivate  the  close  and  continuous  attention  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils. 

2.  To  inspire  self-activity,  power  of  independent  study  and  keen 
insight. 

3.  To  help  the  pupils  to  overcome  harmful  individual  peculiari- 
ties. 

4.  To  teach  the  pupils  the  great  advantage  of.  helpful  coopera- 
tion with  others. 

*  To  quote  further  would  be  practically  to  repeat  the  ob- 
jects of  the  recitation  as  they  are  defined  by  these  two  emi- 
nent educators,  for  most  authorities  agree  in  the  main  that 
these  are  the  essential  aims  of  a  good  recitation.  No  fur- 
ther comment  or  explanation  is  required  than  the  simple 
statement  of  them,  for  they  are  self-explanatory  and  so 
evidently  the  general  aims  of  every  recitation  in  which  there 
is  real  teaching  that  no  argument  for  them  is  needed.  In 
order,  however,  that  the  recitation  may  yield  these  desir- 
able results  in  good  measure,  the  teacher  must  make  the 
attainment  of  these  objects  his  definite  aim  in  making  the 
plans  and  preparation  for  each  recitation  lesson.  At  first 
the  teacher  who  has  never  consciously  made  these  aims  the 
definite  purpose  of  his  teaching,  should  deliberately  en- 
deavor to  apply  them  in  every  recitation-lesson  which  he 
conducts.  Gradually  and  almost  unconsciously  he  will  ac- 
quire the  habit  of  considering  these  objects  when  making  his 
lesson  plans  and  will  select  his  material  and  his  method  of 
treatment  accordingly.  In  reality  his  having  these  defi- 
nite aims  in  mind  when  making  the  preparation  for  a  reci- 
tation should  make  the  task  less  difficult,  as  they  serve  as 
guides  in  the  preparation  and  in  the  management  of  the 
lesson.  It  is  the  more  important  that  the  teacher  have  a 
definite  aim  in  his  teaching  instead  of  groping  blindly,  for 


THE  RECITATION  189 

the  reason  that  no  one  can  expect  to  be  a  true  educator, 
unless  he  works  under  the  guidance  of  a  clearly  defined 
purpose  for  the  attainment  of  certain  desired  results. 

Importance  of  teaching  pupils  how  to  study.  One  of  the 
most  important  duties  of  the  teacher  is  that  of  helping 
pupils  to  learn  how  to  study.  The  necessity  for  this  is  self- 
evident;  for  no  matter  how  carefully  the  teacher  may  have 
selected  and  assigned  the  lesson  in  the  book,  the  pupils  ^v^ll 
derive  little  benefit  from  it  unless  they  have  acquired  the 
art  of  study.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  recitation  fur- 
nishes the  opportunity  to  the  teacher  to  find  out  whether 
the  pupil  is  acquiring  the  art  of  study,  and  whether  he  is 
gaining  the  power  to  study  and  prepare  an  assigned  lesson 
or  to  perform  a  designated  task.  Note  that  the  purpose  of 
the  teacher  is  to  test  the  pupil's  power  to  do.  The  concern 
is  not  so  much  the  number  of  facts  which  the  child  can 
hold  in  his  memory  until  the  recitation  period;  but  rather 
his  eflFort  and  power  as  directed  toward  a  definite  object. 
Hence  the  results  should  be  looked  for  in  the  pupil  himself, 
and  not  in  the  amount  of  information  gained.  At  the  end 
of  the  recitation  or  series  of  recitations  the  teacher  should 
be  able  to  determine,  by  the  results  as  seen  in  the  pupils 
themselves,  whether  their  ability  to  do  an  assigned  piece  of 
work  has  or  has  not  increased. 

In  order  that  the  teacher's  judgment  when  he  is  estimating 
the  results  of  the  pupil's  effort  may  be  reliable  and  just,  he 
should  take  into  account  not  only  the  information  element, 
but  the  time  element  as  well.  In  other  words,  he  should 
consider  the  time  required  by  different  pupils  to  accomplish 
a  definite  amount  of  work  and  to  secure  definite  results.  It 
must  be  remarked  here  that  the  time  element  cannot  be 
judged  apart  and  independently  from  such  considerations 
as  the  conditions  under  which  the  work  is  performed  and 
the  character  and  quaUty  of  the  preparation.  A  poor  reel- 


190  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

tation  does  not  always  mean  a  lack  of  interest  or  a  lack  of 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  On  the  contrary,  there  may 
be  real  interest  and  conscientious  effort  with  but  imperfect 
results  in  actual  knowledge  gained,  because  of  improper 
assignment,  lack  of  help  from  the  teacher,  or  some  other 
wrong  condition. 

The  complaint  that  children  are  not  taught  to  study  is 
heard  on  every  side.  Dr.  Hinsdale  goes  so  far  as  to  state 
that  the  art  of  study  is  nowhere  adequately  taught,  for  the 
reason  that  the  average  teacher  does  not  know  how  to  teach 
the  art  well.  He  further  declares  that  one  of  the  most  seri- 
ous wastes  in  education  is  the  misdirected  and  wasted  effort 
in  the  schoolroom.  Many  educators  aflBrm  that  fully  one 
half  of  the  time  devoted  to  study  in  the  schools  is  employed 
to  little  or  no  purpose,  and  some  believe  that  even  a  larger 
portion  of  the  child's  study  time  is  practically  wasted.  Such 
statements  from  those  who  have  given  the  matter  lifelong 
attention  should  cause  teachers  to  examine  their  own  fail- 
ures to  teach  this  important  art  and  lead  them  to  make  a 
determined  effort  to  remedy  this  defect  in  their  teaching. 
Certainly  no  better  use  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  texts 
than  this  could  be  made,  and  no  higher  aim  for  the  recita- 
tion lesson  could  be  suggested  than  to  endeavor  to  give  pupils 
clear  ideas  of  how  to  study  and  to  help  them  to  form  the 
habit  of  applying  these  ideas  in  acquiring  knowledge. 

The  recitation  adapted  to  the  pupils.  The  instruction  and 
all  the  exercises  of  the  recitation  should  be  adapted  to  the 
age  and  the  development  of  the  pupils.  The  importance  of 
this  is  evident,  and  yet  many  teachers  do  not  give  the  matter 
serious  consideration,  if  indeed  they  think  of  it  at  all.  The 
word  "  adapt  "  implies  thought  of  the  child  and  for  the 
child.  It  also  suggests  thouglit  of  the  material  to  be  pre- 
sented to  the  child  and  the  manner  in  which  it  should  be 
presented  in  order  to  insure  the  desired  results.   It  further 


THE  RECITATION  191 

implies  taking  this  material  and  fitting  it  together  in  such 
a  way  as  to  bring  all  of  its  elements  into  harmonious  rela- 
tionships. In  order  to  properly  adapt  the  subject  and  the 
teaching  to  the  pupils,  there  are  several  matters  to  which 
the  teacher  must  give  careful  attention.  He  must  take  into 
consideration  the  particular  circumstances  and  the  age  of 
the  child  as  well  as  ability  and  needs.  His  attitude  toward 
his  pupils  must  be  one  of  interest  and  sympathy.  And 
finally,  he  must  bring  to  the  solution  of  each  particular 
problem  his  best  thought  and  effort.  The  importance  of 
properly  adapting  instruction  to  the  condition  and  needs 
of  the  child  is  the  more  apparent  when  we  consider  that  to 
him  it  means  true  growth  and  happiness  and  even  more.  It 
means  real  culture  and  true  character  building. 

Teachers  do  not  always  adapt  the  subject-matter  and 
the  teaching  to  the  condition  and  needs  of  their  pupils.  Un- 
fortunately many  of  them  are  not  adapters  at  all,  but  merely 
adopters.  An  adopter  is  a  phonograph  teacher,  one  who 
gives  out  mechanically  the  words  and  ideas  which  he  has 
gathered.  Such  a  teacher  does  not  vitalize  his  words  with 
his  owa  thought  and  experience  and  thus  make  them  living 
messages  out  of  his  own  heart  and  life.  Therefore  he  does 
not  touch  and  influence  the  lives  of  his  pupils.  His  teach- 
ing is  lifeless  and  dead,  and  hence  cannot  make  an  appeal 
to  the  child  or  call  forth  a  desirable  response. 

Order  in  the  recitation.  A  good  recitation,  in  addition  to 
having  a  right  aim  and  being  properly  adapted  to  the  pu- 
pils has  another  important  requisite.  The  topics  presented 
and  the  instruction  given  must  follow  in  the  proper  order. 
The  frequent  failure  of  teachers  to  give  sufficient  and  careful 
attention  to  the  matter  of  the  sequential  order  of  presen- 
tation in  the  recitation  results  in  one  of  the  greatest  educa- 
tional losses  of  the  schools.  On  the  other  hand,  this  essen- 
tial condition  for  a  good  recitation,  when  secured,  makes 


192  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

the  learning  process  easier  and  hence  the  efforts  of  the 
teacher  more  effective.  It  also  enables  pupils  to  acquire 
the  power  of  clear,  logical,  and  sequential  thinking;  a  re- 
sult of  greater  significance  and  of  more  lasting  benefit  than 
the  actual  knowledge  gained. 

This  matter  of  the  proper  order  of  presentation  and  de- 
velopment in  the  recitation  requires  particular  emphasis 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  so  often  neglected.  In  the  words  of 
a  well-known  educator,  the  question,  "  What  is  the  next 
proper  thing  to  do?  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  most 
momentous  that  the  teacher  can  ask  himself."  Moreover, 
it  is  the  question  that  the  teacher  should  ask  himself  and 
endeavor  to  answer  correctly  in  every  recitation  conducted 
during  the  day.  Nor  is  this  a  question  that  must  be  an- 
swered only  in  the  schoolroom  and  in  the  recitation;  it  is 
one  that  is  met  in  every  vocation  and  in  all  the  relations  of 
life.  Every  thoughtful  person  is  being  continually  con- 
fronted with  the  question,  "  What  ought  I  to  do  next?  " 
Any  careless  haphazard  answer  will  not  satisfy  conditions 
and  bring  desired  results;  for  the  answer  to  this  question 
must  be,  not  merely  a  next  thing  to  do  but  the  proper  next 
thing.  The  ability  to  see  things  in  their  proper  relations  is 
acquired  by  degrees,  and  the  habit  of  considering  things  in 
their  correct  sequence,  their  cause  and  result  relations,  must 
be  formed  early  in  life. 

The  recitation,  by  furnishing  the  opportunity  for  culti- 
vating this  habit,  becomes  of  more  consequence  than  merely 
an  occasion  for  acquiring  knowledge  or  mastering  some 
particular  branch  of  learning.  It  is  to  be  deplored  that  in 
so  many  cases  the  teacher  is  satisfied  with  doing  a  next 
thing  without  considering  whether  it  is  the  outgrowth  of 
what  has  preceded  it.  If  he  would  always  bear  in  mind  that 
the  child  learns  new  facts  by  proceeding  from  the  known  to 
the  related  unknown,  he  would  not  make  the  mistake  of 


THE  RECITATION  193 

presenting  new  facts  and  ideas  that  are  not  closely  related 
to  the  knowledge  which  the  child  already  possesses.  Dr. 
Hinsdale,  in  his  Art  of  Study,  says,  "  To  ask  a  child  to  learn 
a  lesson  that  is  not  connected  with  a  former  lesson  and  es- 
pecially the  last  one,  is  like  asking  him  to  jump  to  the  top 
of  a  rock  that  is  above  his  head."  Naturally,  for  a  teacher 
to  be  able  to  understand  in  just  what  order  related  topics 
bearing  on  the  same  general  subject  should  be  presented, 
he  must  have  full  information  upon  the  subject,  so  that  he 
can  see  it  in  its  completeness  and  understand  the  relation 
of  the  parts  to  one  another.  It  is  an  essential  quahfication 
of  a  great  teacher  that  he  be  able  to  do  this  and  to  put  facts 
together  in  proper  seciuence  so  as  to  make  the  recitation 
truly  cfFective  in  its  teaching  and  satisfactory  in  its  results. 

Length  of  the  recitation.  The  length  of  time  to  be  given 
to  a  recitation  is  a  consideration  of  much  importance.  Some 
of  the  elements  that  enter  into  this  question  are  the  age  of 
the  pupils,  the  nature  of  the  subject  of  study,  the  entire 
length  of  time  to  be  given  to  the  particular  branch,  the 
quantity  of  the  subject-matter  to  be  learned  in  the  allotted 
time,  and  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done  by  the  pupils  in 
other  branches  during  the  same  time.  A  table  which  gives 
an  apportionment  of  time  for  the  common  branches  usually 
taught  in  every  school  is  given  for  consideration.  To  teach- 
ers who  have  not  had  the  opportunity  to  study  this  ques- 
tion and  to  make  such  a  table  for  themselves  the  one  here 
given  may  be  helpful.  It  was  arranged  for  use  in  an  excel- 
lent system  of  schools  and  made  the  basis  for  the  program 
of  recitations  in  all  the  grades  of  that  school.  It  represents 
a  serious  study  of  this  problem,  and  it  approximates  the  gen- 
eral practice  in  the  best  American  schools. 

A  careful  examination  of  this  table  will  enable  one  to 
answer  definitely  many  of  the  questions  that  arise  regard- 
ing  the   length  of   time   to   be   devoted    to  the  various 


194  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

branches  of  study  in  the  grades.  Note  that  all  of  the  follow- 
ing questions  can  be  answered  by  reference  to  this  table. 

1.  Which  subjects  in  the  grades  should  receive  the  most  time? 

2.  How  much  time  should  be  given  to  phonics? 

3.  In  what  grades  should  work  in  phonics  be  given  formally? 

4.  How  much  time  should  be  given  to  spelling? 

5.  Should  nature  work  (biology)  be  given  in  all  the  grades? 

6.  How  much  time  should  be  given  to  this  subject  in  each  grade? 

7.  How  much  home  work  should  be  required  in  the  fifth  grade? 

8.  How  much  home  work  should  be  required  in  each  grade? 

9.  How  much  time  should  be  given  to  study? 

10.  In  what  grade  should  manual  training  or  other  constructive 
work  begin? 

11.  How  much  time  should  be  allotted  to  it? 

Recitation  allotments  must  suit  individual  conditions.  A 
careful  examination  of  the  table  on  the  opposite  page,  by 
means  of  the  suggested  questions  and  similar  ones,  will  give 
the  teacher  information  that  will  enable  him  to  arrange  a 
program  for  recitation  and  study  periods  that  will  suit  con- 
ditions in  his  own  school  and  give  the  correct  distribution  of 
time  and  the  proper  balance  to  his  work.  It  is  possible  that 
in  certain  schools  there  may  be  conditions  that  would  make 
it  necessary  to  change  the  time  allotted  to  some  of  the  sub- 
jects, but  unless  these  reasons  are  known  to  be  good  ones, 
it  would  be  better  to  follow  the  schedule  here  suggested. 
When  a  teacher  is  uncertain  regarding  the  relative  value  of 
studies,  such  a  table  as  this  is  of  the  greatest  help  in  en- 
abling him  to  give  proper  balance  to  his  program  of  work. 
If  he  cannot  allow  the  time  indicated  for  each  subject,  he 
can  still  divide  the  time  in  the  same  proportion  and  thus 
maintain  the  same  balance  of  work.  Teachers  should  give 
intelligent  and  careful  consideration  to  the  time  feature  of 
the  recitation  in  planning  their  work,  or  it  will  not  have 
due  proportion  of  importance  in  the  school  plan. 


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196  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACmNG 

Subjective  and  objective  results.  A  good  recitation  will 
produce  both  objective  and  subjective  results  of  a  desirable 
kind.  The  objective  results  wall  be  determined  by  the 
amount  of  the  subject-matter  the  pupils  will  master  and 
retain.  The  subjective  results  will  be  determined  by  the 
reaction  upon  the  pupil  himself  in  real  mental  and  moral 
culture  and  growth.  Interest  in  the  subject  of  the  recita- 
tion, right  habits  of  attention,  of  thinking,  and  of  reciting 
are  immediate  subjective  results  of  a  positive  and  desirable 
character.  On  the  contrary,  lack  of  interest  in  the  subject, 
habits  of  inattention,  inability  to  think  logically,  and  care- 
less habits  of  speech  are  negative  subjective  results  of  such 
an  undesirable  character  that  they  often  counteract  the 
benefits  of  the  objective  results  gained  through  the  infor- 
mation acquired.  Thus  the  results  of  the  misdirected  reci- 
tation are  negative,  rather  than  positive.  This  considera- 
tion should  impress  teachers  with  the  fact  that  primarily 
they  are  teaching  boys  and  girls  and  not  merely  giving  in- 
struction in  branches  of  learning;  and  therefore  they  should 
look  for  results  in  the  boys  and  girls,  themselves,  rather 
than  in  terms  of  the  quantity  of  knowledge  acquired.  Hence 
they  should  include  in  the  summary  of  their  work  the  sub- 
jective as  well  as  the  objective  results;  for  when  these  are 
present,  the  teacher  may  be  sure  that  the  recitation  has  been 
effective  in  its  teaching  and  beneficial  in  its  results. 

Evidences  of  a  good  recitation.  When  an  educator  who 
is  competent  to  judge  of  a  good  recitation  visits  a  class,  he 
expects  to  find  a  fair  number  of  the  conditions  enumerated 
below;  and  according  to  the  proportion  of  these  that  he 
finds  he  pronounces  the  recitation  good  or  otherwise. 

Among  the  essential  conditions  for  a  good  recitation  are 
the  following :  — 

1.  An  orderly,  interested  class  and  a  teacher  sympathetic,  help- 
ful, and  inspiring. 


TIIE  RECITATION  197 

2.  The  pupils  getting  a  clear  conception  of  the  subject  of  the 
recitation. 

3.  A  class  that  has  made  careful  and  intelligent  preparation. 

4.  An  aim  suited  to  the  needs  and  the  ability  of  the  pupils  and 
in  proper  relation  to  the  preceding  topic. 

5.  The  teacher  conversant  with  the  lesson  and  having  the  abil- 
ity to  relate  it  to  former  lessons. 

6.  All  questions  and  topics  being  presented  in  right  sequence. 

7.  The  entire  recitation  adapted  to  the  age  and  development 
of  the  pupils. 

8.  The  relation  between  the  teacher  and  pupils  one  of  mutual 
confidence  and  helpfulness. 

9.  The  objective  results  clear  and  accurate  and  the  subjective 
results  certain  and  positive. 

10.  The  lesson  closing  with  the  interest  keen,  the  next  assign- 
ment definite,  and  such  explanations  and  help  given  as  the 
case  required. 


SUGGESTED  READINGS 

School  and  Society,  Dewey,  pp.  65-68. 

How  to  Teach,  Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  pp.  200-20. 

Classroom  Management,  Bagley,  pp.  192-210,  226-49. 

The  Recitation,  Belts. 

The  Learning  Process,  Colvin. 

Principles  of  Educational  Practice,  Klapper,  pp.  195-235,  268-86. 

Types  of  Teaching,  Earhart,  pp.  28-55,  93-100,  220-63. 

Principles  of  Elementary  Education,  Bachman,  pp.  246-83. 

School  Management,  Dutton,  pp.  140-52. 

How  to  Teach  the  Common  Branches,  Kendall  and  Mirick,  pp.  59-68. 

Method  of  the  Recitation,  McMurry. 

A  New  School  Management,  Seeley,  chap.  xvi. 

How  to  Study,  McMurry. 


EXERCISES 

1.  Write  as  fully  as  you  can  j'our  ideas  of  the  purpose  of  the  recitation. 

2.  Explain  what  in  your  opinion  would  be  a  good  recitation.  Answer 
the  question  from  the  standpoint  of  the  pupil  and  also  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  teacher. 

3.  Name  some  common  faults  of  the  recitation. 

4.  Discuss  fully  your  opinion  of  concert  work  in  the  recitation. 


198  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

5.  State  fully  your  ideas  regarding  the  value  of  a  recitation  conducted 

by  the  class,  the  difiFerent  members  asking  the  questions. 

6.  Tell  how  you  would  conduct  a  recitation  in  a  seventh-grade  reading- 
class,  the  lesson  being  the  "  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade." 

7.  Explain  the  difference  between  "  a  hearing  "  recitation  and  a  "  teach- 
ing "  recitation. 

8.  What  do  you  understand  by  "  study  "  recitations?    Discuss  their 
value. 

9.  State  your  opinion  of  the  wisdom  of  assigning  lessons  at  the  beginning 
of  a  recitation  rather  than  at  the  close. 

10.  The  history  lesson  assigned  treats  of  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus.  Write  out  five  questions  that  are  appropriate  and  that  are 
in  good  sequence. 

11.  Criticize  the  following  questions  based  upon  an  actual  geography 
lesson.  The  subject  being:  "  Drainage  of  South  America." 

(1)  What  is  the  greatest  valley  of  South  America? 

(2)  What  are  the  chief  cities  of  this  continent? 

(3)  What  does  a  drainage  map  show? 

(4)  Which  way  does  the  land  slope  near  the  Pacific  Ocean? 

(5)  Which  way  does  the  land  slope  in  Argentina? 

(6)  Where  are  minerals  found? 

(7)  Why  is  the  Amazon  river  the  biggest  river  in  the  world? 

(8)  Is  South  America  a  dry  continent,  or  a  wet  continent?    Give 
reason  for  your  answer. 

(9)  In  which  side  of  the  Andes  Mountains  is  found  the  longest  rivers? 
(10)  What  makes  these  rivers  long? 

12.  Assign  a  lesson  on  South  America  after  discussing  the  above  ques- 
tions. Write  out  your  assignment  and  submit  it  for  criticism. 


CHAPTER  XI 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

IHirpose  of  subject-matter.  In  order  that  we  may  con- 
sider the  topic  of  subject-matter  intelHgently  and  broadly, 
it  is  necessary  that  we  have  a  correct  understanding  of  the 
meaning  and  purpose  of  education  as  it  apphes  to  our  pres- 
ent civihzation.  We  must  also  have  a  correct  conception 
of  the  civihzation  for  which  this  education  must  prepare; 
for  the  subject-maiter  of  a  course  of  study  should  grow  out  of 
the  cimlization  which  it  aims  to  interpret.  For  example,  the 
subject-matter  for  the  schools  of  England  should  grow  out 
of  the  English  civilization;  that  for  the  schools  of  France 
should  grow  out  of  French  civilization;  that  for  the  schools 
of  Germany  should  be  furnished  by  German  civilization; 
and  at  least  the  major  portion  of  the  subject-matter  for  the 
schools  of  the  United  States  should  be  drawn  from  our  own 
civilization.  This  thesis  implies  a  second  fundamental  idea 
which  is  embodied  in  the  statement  that  those  subjects  are 
of  the  greatest  value  which  interpret  or  present  most  clearly 
American  civilization  at  the  present  time.  The  importance 
of  this  statement  should  be  emphasized,  for  it  furnishes  a 
basis  for  determining  the  relative  values  of  subjects  to  be 
taught.  As  an  example  of  the  application  of  this  test,  it  is 
evident  that  for  the  majority  of  students  the  sciences 
would  rank  high  in  value,  while  Latin,  Greek,  and  higher 
mathematics  would  be  of  much  less  value. 

Education  explained.  There  are  almost  as  many  defini- 
tions of  education  as  there  are  writers  upon  the  subject. 
Every  student  of  education  is  familiar  with  a  number  of 
these  and  with  the  phrases  in  which  different  writers  on 


200  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

education  sum  up  their  ideas  of  the  aim.  Whether  they 
make  "character-building,"  "preparation  for  social  effi- 
ciency," "the  complete  development  of  the  whole  man,"  or 
some  other  particular  phase  of  the  "preparation  for  com- 
plete living"  the  ultimate  aim  of  education,  they  all  agree 
that  the  final  result  must  be  subjective  —  must  show  itself 
in  some  form  of  self-expression  and  growth.  By  growth  is 
here  meant  those  changes  and  additions  which  come  into  a 
life  and  give  it  shape  and  power.  A  person's  education  is  a 
continuous  process  of  growth  which  begins  with  his  first 
dawn  of  consciousness  and  continues  through  hfe.  The 
agencies  which  contribute  to  this  educational  result  include 
all  the  conditions  and  experiences  that  enter  into  life.  All 
these  are  educational,  and  therefore  must  be  taken  into 
consideration  in  shaping  any  plan  for  child  welfare  and 
growth.  At  an  early  period  in  his  life  the  child  unconsciously 
receives  many  fundamental  ideas  from  his  parents  and  from 
other  persons  with  whom  he  is  associated.  As  a  result  he 
begins  the  formation  of  his  basal  concepts  by  which  he 
evaluates  the  people  whom  he  knows,  their  vocations,  and 
many  other  matters.  In  these  and  other  ways  he  adds  con- 
stantly to  his  basal  concepts  of  the  world  in  which  he  finds 
himself,  and  lays  the  foundation  for  his  future  education. 
Even  as  a  child  he  begins  to  select  and  choose  his  favorite 
person  and  occupations  and  to  express  preference  for  certain 
things,  thus  showing  that  the  formation  of  ideals  has  already 
begun  in  his  mind. 

Early  concepts  differ  with  environment.  It  is  evident  that 
the  early  concepts  which  children  gather  by  direct  contact 
must  of  necessity  vary  with  their  environments;  and  their 
early  ideals  of  persons  and  occupations  and  of  things  in 
general  will  differ  according  to  the  kind  of  people  and  the 
conditions  that  surround  them.  Often  the  person  whom  the 
child  most  admires  does  not  furnish  him  the  best  ideal  of 


SUBJECT-MATTER  201 

manhood  or  womanhood,  and  in  very  many  cases,  his  early 
desires  and  ambitions  are  not  the  ones  that  he  will  have 
later  in  life.  Many  men  who  have  achieved  wealth  and 
fame  in  the  business  and  the  professional  world  can  remem- 
ber the  childish  ambition  to  become  policemen  and  wear 
uniforms,  to  patrol  a  beat  and  arrest  evil-doers,  or  to  ride 
to  a  fire  behind  galloping  fire-horses. 

Since  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  in  the  earlier  years 
material  for  growth  is  largely  gained  by  direct  contact  and 
association  with  persons  and  material  things,  it  is  apparent 
that  the  quality  and  extent  of  growth  must  he  greatly  influenced 
by  the  kind  of  people  thai  come  into  the  life  of  the  child  and  by 
the  variety  and  extent  of  his  early  contact  vnth  nature.  Because 
of  this  the  matter  of  early  environment  is  of  the  utmost 
importance;  and  the  school  should  supply  to  its  pupils,  so 
far  as  possible,  the  right  experiences  and  influences  that  have 
been  lacking  in  their  home  surroundings,  in  order  that  they 
may  have  the  right  foundation  for  subsequent  growth.  It 
often  happens  that  a  child's  early  environment,  not  only 
fails  to  provide  desirable  experiences,  but  actually  furnishes 
conditions  and  material  for  the  formation  of  wrong  or  unde- 
sirable ambitions  and  ideals.  In  such  cases  it  is  the  more 
urgent  that  the  school  furnish  conditions  that  will  pro- 
vide material  for  the  formation  of  right  ideals  and  desirable 
ambitions,  in  order  to  give  pupils  the  natural  opportunities 
for  desirable  growth. 

The  child's  educational  capital.  The  early  childhood  ex- 
periences gained  from  environment  make  up  the  capital 
which  the  child  puts  into  the  business  of  education  when  he 
enters  school.  The  teacher's  personality  and  preparation 
constitute  the  capital  which  he  invests  in  this  educational 
partnership.  He  is  in  charge  of  the  business  and  is  the 
business  manager,  and  it  is  clearly  his  province  so  to  direct 
and  use  both  his  own  and  his  pupil's  capital  that  reasonable 


202  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

returns  will  result.  The  returns  should  consist  of  increased 
knowledge,  widened  interest,  broadened  experiences,  and 
the  formation  of  a  greater  number  of  desirable  habits.  The 
business  manager  should  also  be  able  to  take  and  know  the 
value  of  the  stock  and  understand  how  to  make  a  wise  use 
of  it.  Unfortunately,  many  teachers  do  not  know  how  to 
value  their  own  or  the  pupil's  capital  and  never  attempt  to 
take  stock  of  it.  As  a  result  much  of  the  instruction  given 
by  such  teachers  really  jeopardizes  the  capital  which  the 
pupil  puts  into  the  business  of  education.  In  the  business 
world  a  manager  who  does  not  know  how  to  conduct  the 
business  intrusted  to  him  and  use  the  capital  invested  in  it 
in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  satisfactory  results  would  not  be 
retained  long  in  his  position.  The  same  condition  should 
be  found  in  the  school;  for  the  teacher  who  fails  to  make  a 
wise  use  of  the  capital  intrusted  to  him  and  does  not  man- 
age the  business  of  his  department  in  a  way  to  bring  desir- 
able results,  fails  in  a  far  more  important  matter  than  he 
who  fails  in  th^  management  of  material  matters. 

Aim  of  education  realized  through  proper  subject-matter. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  school,  as  the  recognized  educative 
agent  of  society,  to  select  the  material  to  be  used  in  the 
education  of  the  child  and  to  determine  the  manner  in  which 
it  should  be  used.  The  school,  therefore,  must  select  from 
the  large  mass  of  recorded  race  experiences  and  human 
activities  that  portion,  by  means  of  which  the  ultimate  aim 
of  education  may  best  be  realized  in  the  preparation  of  the 
individual  for  his  life  work.  Since,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
the  whole  future  life  and  usefulness  of  the  child  as  a  social 
unit  will  be  largely  determined  by  his  early  education  and 
training,  the  selection  of  the  subject-matter  to  be  used  in 
this  training  is  of  the  utmost  importance  and  should  be 
made  with  the  greatest  care.  In  order  that  it  may  be  thus 
selected,  there  must  be  clear  and  definite  knowledge  on  the 


SUBJECT-MATTER  203 

part  of  the  one  making  the  selection.  It  is  apparent  that  the 
subject-matter  of  the  schools  should  be  carefully  chosen  to 
include  that  educational  material,  which,  by  direct  or  by 
reflected  contact,  furnishes  valuable  concepts  and  at  the 
same  time  incites  and  stimulates  proper  self-activity.  A 
proper  selection  and  intelligent  use  of  subject-matter  brings 
the  child  into  such  unity  with  life,  as  it  is  interpreted  in  the 
world  of  knowledge  and  achievement,  that  his  powers  and 
capabilities  are  stimulated  to  activity  and  a  positive  sub- 
jective response  which  leads  to  self-realization  results. 

Educational  guidance.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  purpose 
of  education  in  our  schools  is  to  put  the  young  in  possession  of 
the  best  ideals  of  present-day  civilization.  Since  this  can  be 
done  only  through  the  training  and  development  of  all  the 
powers  of  the  individual  by  means  of  the  various  educa- 
tional agencies,  the  proper  guidance  of  these  agencies  be- 
comes a  most  important  matter.  It  is  evident  that  with- 
out this  guidance  the  education  of  an  individual  would  be  a 
haphazard  hit-and-miss  process  without  a  definite  purpose, 
and  hence  leading  to  no  particular  goal.  Any  desired  aim  is 
most  effectively  attained  by  the  harmonious  combination  of 
all  the  means  directed  toward  this  end  under  proper  guid- 
ance. The  public  school  as  the  agent  of  society  for  deter- 
mining the  aims  and  means  of  education  must  direct  the 
use  of  these  means  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  contribute 
to  the  desired  result.  In  order  that  the  school  may  do  this 
most  effectively  and  be  in  reality  the  directing  force  in  the 
preparation  of  the  child  for  his  place  in  the  community  life, 
it  must  understand  fully  for  what  he  should  be  educated  and 
the  means  through  which  this  education  may  be  attained. 

Education  both  general  and  special.  The  education  and 
training  which  the  child  requires  to  enable  him  to  under- 
stand the  present  civilization  and  to  prepare  him  for  his 
place  in  it  must  be  both  general  and  special.    He  should 


204  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACmNG 

receive  a  general  education,  based  upon  a  knowledge  of  com- 
mon race  experiences  and  an  understanding  of  the  symbols 
of  education,  together  with  a  training  in  their  use,  that  will 
develop  his  abihty  to  make  a  wise  selection  and  use  of  the 
products  offered  to  man.  This  general  or  basic  education 
should  be  of  such  a  character  that  it  will  serve  as  a  right 
foundation  for  the  later  special  education  along  both  cul- 
tural and  vocational  lines.  In  addition  to  this  general 
education  which  every  one  should  receive,  all  who  can 
should  obtain  a  special  education  in  some  particular  depart- 
ment of  knowledge,  either  practical  or  cultural,  according 
to  his  condition  and  purpose.  This  special  education,  by 
putting  the  individual  in  possession  of  certain  valuable 
knowledge,  makes  of  him  a  more  useful  member  of  society 
than  he  would  otherwise  be.  It  should  not  only  enlarge  the 
capacity  of  the  individual  for  the  use  and  enjoyment  of 
material  and  spiritual  good,  but  it  should  prepare  him  to 
become  in  turn  a  valuable  contributor  to  the  material  and 
spiritual  good  of  others. 

It  is  apparent  that  to  attain  the  final  aims  of  these  two 
phases  of  education  in  self-reaUzation  and  preparation  for 
social  efficiency,  the  special  education,  as  well  as  the  gen- 
eral, must  be  both  vocational  and  cultural.  From  the  very 
nature  and  requirements  of  the  special  cultural  education, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  public  school  cannot  provide  the 
means  for  attaining  it.  Regarding  the  duty  of  the  public 
school  in  providing  vocational  training  for  its  pupils,  there 
is  great  diversity  of  opinion  and  the  matter  is  at  present  on 
trial.  All  p>ersons  are  agreed,  however,  that  as  an  agent  of 
society,  the  public  school  should  be  held  responsible  for  the 
general  education  of  the  child.  It  is  therefore  this  general 
education  with  which  we  are  particularly  concerned  at  pres- 
ent and  it  is  of  this  that  the  chapter  treats. 

Educative  means.   After  determining  the  kind  of  educa- 


SUBJECT-MATTER  205 

tion  that  will  best  fit  the  young  for  their  places  in  life  and 
enable  them  to  realize  the  ultimate  aim  of  education  in 
character,  the  next  step  is  to  consider  the  means  through 
which  this  education  may  be  secured  and  the  ways  in  which 
these  means  should  be  used  in  order  to  attain  the  desired 
end  in  real  preparation  for  complete  living.  An  enumeration 
and  careful  analysis  of  the  principal  influences  that  con- 
tribute to  the  education  of  the  individual  in  our  modern 
civilization  will  reveal  the  fact  that  they  are  of  two  distinct 
kinds  and  may  be  arranged  in  two  clearly  marked  groups. 
The  first  class  includes  all  those  influences  which  act 
directly  upon  the  child,  and  the  second  those  that  act 
through  some  medium  and  are  transmitted  or  conveyed  by 
this  medium  to  the  child. 

Direct  educative  means.  The  most  important  and  the 
most  valuable  of  the  educative  means  which  act  directly 
upon  the  learner  wdthout  his  conscious  effort,  and  therefore 
may  be  termed  direct  means  or  influences,  are  the  forces 
and  elements  of  nature  and  also  such  works  of  man  as  can 
make  a  direct  appeal  without  an  intervening  medium.  As 
examples  of  the  direct  educative  influences  in  nature  may  be 
mentioned  all  natural  phenomena,  such  as  light,  space,  form, 
color,  the  natural  products  of  the  animal,  the  vegetable, 
and  the  mineral  kingdoms,  and  all  the  works  of  nature  that 
can  make  a  direct  appeal  to  the  child  through  actual  con- 
tact. Of  the  works  of  man  that  make  a  direct  educative 
appeal  may  be  cited  buildings,  railroads,  manufactured  arti- 
cles, works  of  art,  and  in  fact  all  works  of  man  that  can 
make  an  appeal  without  the  aid  of  other  means  or  agencies. 

Indirect  educative  means.  The  indirect  educative  means 
or  influences  are  those  which  by  their  very  nature  cannot 
make  a  direct  appeal  to  the  learner  but  require  some  exter- 
nal medium  through  which  the  appeal  may  be  made  or  the 
message  transmitted.   For  example,  all  information,  experi- 


206  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

ences,  truths,  and  other  educative  matter  recorded  in  books 
or  otherwise  which  the  child  does  not  have  the  opportunity 
to  acquire  directly  through  his  owti  experiences  or  cannot 
learn  by  actual  contact  are  the  indirect  educative  means. 
These  the  learner  must  acquire  through  the  medium  of  some 
person  who  already  possesses  this  knowledge  and  conveys 
it  to  him  by  means  of  the  spoken  or  written  word  or  by  some 
other  form  of  expression. 

Source  of  indirect  educative  means.  With  the  advance 
of  civihzation  a  larger  body  of  knowledge  and  a  broader  and 
more  complex  preparation  were  required  to  meet  the  in- 
creasing demands  of  this  complex  civilization;  and  at  the 
same  time  the  opportunities  for  making  this  preparation  by 
direct  means  through  actual  contact  decreased.  Therefore 
the  knowledge  and  experience  which  the  child  needed,  but 
which  he  could  not  obtain  in  the  natural,  direct  way,  had  to 
be  conveyed  or  reflected  to  him  by  some  one  who  possessed 
this  knowledge.  This  transmitted  information  and  experi- 
ence the  child  could  understand  or  interpret  by  means  of 
its  relation  to  the  experiences  and  the  knowledge  which  he 
had  gained  by  direct  means.  With  the  increasing  demand 
for  this  transmitted  knowledge,  scholars  gathered  together 
the  great  mass  of  world  facts  and  experiences  and  recorded 
them  by  the  written  word  in  books  and  in  other  forms,  that 
they  might  be  accessible  to  all  who  wished  to  acquire  them. 
These  records  have  become  valuable  means  of  conveying 
world  knowledge  and  experiences.  As  an  illustration  of  this, 
consider  the  value  to  the  students  of  the  present  time  of  the 
written  records  of  all  the  truths  and  facts  relating  to  any 
one  of  the  sciences  —  physiology,  for  instance  —  that  have 
been  gleaned  from  the  experiences  and  experiments  of  stu- 
dents of  this  science  through  all  past  ages.  It  has  taken  the 
human  race  Ltindreds  of  years  to  experience,  test,  and  gather 
together  these  facts;  but  they  can  all  be  transmitted  or  com- 


SUBJECT-MATTER  207 

municated  to  the  learner  of  the  present  day  in  a  very  short 
time,  thus  giving  him  the  benefit  of  the  study,  research,  and 
experiences  of  the  scholars  of  all  time.  The  worth  of  these 
records  of  world  facts  and  experiences  is  the  more  apparent 
when  we  consider  that  much  of  the  knowledge  gained  from 
them  could  not  otherwise  be  acquired.  It  is  evident,  then, 
that  it  is  from  these  records  of  world  facts  and  experiences 
that  much  of  the  subject-matter  for  the  course  of  study  in 
the  schools  must  be  taken.  This  is  the  storehouse  from  which 
all  may  draw  according  to  their  needs  and  purposes. 

The  selection  of  subject-matter.  The  subject-matter  of 
the  curriculum,  to  serve  as  a  means  of  education,  must  be 
selected  with  exact  reference  to  the  kind  of  preparation  the 
individual  requires  to  fit  him  for  his  particular  place  in 
society.  It  has  been  seen  that  all  children,  regardless  of 
their  future  places  in  the  social  and  vocational  world,  should 
have  a  foundational  or  general  education  which  will  serve 
as  a  basis  for  subsequent  vocational  and  cultural  education 
and  training.  In  the  case  of  the  majority  of  children  in  our 
schools,  this  elementary  general  education  will  be  practically 
all  the  instruction  that  the  public  schools  can  give  them,  for 
the  reason  that  they  leave  school  at  an  early  age,  usually  to 
become  wage-earners.  The  school,  therefore,  must  furnish 
this  large  class  with  the  essentials  of  their  liberal  or  cultural 
education.  In  the  light  of  this  fact  the  selection  of  the 
subject-matter  for  this  general  education  is  a  question  of 
great  importance.  As  the  time  which  this  large  number  of 
children  can  give  to  acquiring  this  general  knowledge  is 
short,  economy  of  time  requires  that  the  course  of  study  for 
the  elementary  school  contain  just  such  subject-matter  as 
is  essential  in  this  foundational  education  and  nothing  more. 
The  time  of  the  child  in  the  elementary  school  is  much  too 
precious  to  be  wasted  in  the  acquisition  of  any  but  the  most 
useful  and  usable  knowledge  and  experience. 


208  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

In  an  effort  to  make  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary 
public  school  the  best  means  through  which  the  child  may 
acquire  the  fundamentals  of  a  hberal  education  and  the 
foundation  at  least  of  his  preparation  for  practical  life,  it 
has  been  often  revised  and  greatly  modified  during  the  past 
few  years.  Many  of  the  time-honored  subjects  of  the  course 
of  study  that  do  not  relate  directly  to  life  and  everyday 
experiences  have  been  discarded,  and  others  which  have  real 
value  in  interpreting  our  present  civilization  and  in  prepar- 
ing the  young  for  life  have  taken  their  places.  For  example, 
the  tedious  and  mechanical  exercises  in  parsing  are  no 
longer  heard,  and  the  time  once  wasted  upon  them  is  now 
spent  in  more  practical  exercises  in  the  correct  use  of  Eng- 
lish. The  time  formerly  devoted  to  the  tiresome  and  useless 
memorizing  of  historical  dates  is  now  used  to  better  purpose 
in  the  study  of  such  matters  as  discoveries  and  inventions, 
the  growth  of  industries,  the  logical  sequence  and  relation 
of  events,  the  evolution  of  the  human  race,  and  the  devel- 
opment of  civilization  in  general. 

In  order  that  the  child's  time  may  be  employed  prop- 
erly in  making  his  preparation  for  life,  it  is  important  that 
the  most  useful  subject-matter  be  presented  to  him.  To  this 
end  it  must  be  tested  and  evaluated  with  direct  reference 
to  its  serving  the  ultimate  and  immediate  aims  of  educa- 
tion better  than  any  other  available  material.  The  tests 
which  should  be  applied  to  all  subject-matter  before  it  is 
given  a  place  in  the  school  curriculum  are  whether  it  can  be 
made  a  means  of  the  all-around  development  and  prepara- 
tion of  the  child  for  his  place  in  society,  whether  it  will  serve 
as  a  basis  for  subsequent  cultural  and  vocational  education 
and  training,  and  whether  it  will  help  the  pupil  to  under- 
stand the  civilization  of  to-day.  In  order  that  subject- 
matter  may  meet  these  tests,  it  must  satisfy  certain  require- 
ments. A  brief  discussion  of  these  requirements  will  perhaps 


SUBJECT-MATTER  209 

make  more  clear  the  kind  of  subject-matter  that  should  be 
used  and  what  it  must  contain. 

1.  Subject-matter  must  furnish  material  for  teaching:  — 

(1)  General  and  fundamental  facts  of  world  knowl- 
edge. 

(2)  Universal  experiences  and  concepts. 

(3)  The  character  of  our  national  civilization. 

(4)  The  intellectual  tools  or  symbols  of  knowledge. 

2.  Subject-matter  must  contain  material  that  is  useful:  — 

(1)  For  its  cultural  value. 

(2)  For  giving  instruction  in  vocational  guidance. 

3.  Subject-matter  must  be  selected  from  all  fields  of 
knowledge. 

4.  Subject-matter  should  be  adapted  to  the  development 
of  the  child. 

5.  Subject-matter  must  interpret  present-day  civiUzation. 
Subject-matter  for  teaching   fimdamental   facts.    The 

subject-matter  selected  for  imparting  the  information  from 
the  great  body  of  world  facts  that  every  one  should  know  is 
what  is  usually  imderstood  by  the  phrase, "  Course  of  Study." 
It  is  the  "what  to  teach  "  of  the  majority  of  teachers.  The 
conception  on  the  part  of  different  educators  of  what  is  the 
actual  scope  of  the  subject-matter  varies  greatly.  There  are 
different  opinions  regarding  the  amount  of  information  in  a 
particular  branch  or  subject  that  should  be  covered  in  the 
course  of  study  for  all  the  grades  of  the  school  and  what 
portion  of  each  should  be  taught  in  a  given  grade.  Educa- 
tors disagree  also  as  to  the  value  of  some  of  the  branches 
in  the  school  curriculum  and  as  to  what  extent  instruction 
in  each  should  be  carried. 

An  examination  of  courses  of  study  prepared  by  educa- 
tional experts  often  reveals  these  differences  of  opinion  in 
the  subject-matter  selected  and  in  the  relative  importance 
to  the  child's  preparation  for  life  which  they  assign  to  the 


210  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

various  branches.  There  should  be  more  agreement  upon 
the  subject-matter  to  be  used  in  the  prei>aration  for  general 
citizenship  in  order  that  there  may  be  more  unity  in  the 
preparation  and  more  homogeneity  in  our  people.  If  the 
fundamentals  of  the  education  received  by  persons  in  all 
parts  of  the  country  were  the  same,  if  they  possessed  the 
same  general  facts  of  world  knowledge,  the  same  national 
facts,  and  the  same  ideals  of  our  civiUzation,  the  people 
would  be  more  homogeneous,  the  national  spirit  would  be 
more  active  and  positive,  and  men  could  go  among  their 
fellows  in  any  part  of  the  land,  intelligently  performing 
their  parts  in  any  situation  in  which  they  might  be  placed. 
The  right  kind  of  an  education  should  prepare  a  person  to 
meet  different  situations  properly,  and  the  general  educa- 
tion received  by  a  child  in  the  pubHc  schools  should  prepare 
him  to  meet  situations  intelligently  and  confidently. 

Subject-matter  for  teaching  universal  experiences  and 
concepts.  It  has  been  previously  stated  that  the  child  inter- 
prets new  matter  presented  to  him  through  and  in  terms  of 
his  own  personal  experiences.  As  children's  experiences  are 
limited  to  those  which  come  from  their  environment,  no 
child  ever  has  the  opportunity  for  having  all  the  experiences 
or  gaining  all  the  concepts  through  actual  contact  that  are 
necessary  for  a  correct  interpretation  of  all  the  new  matter 
presented  in  the  schools.  Because  of  this  much  valuable 
time  is  lost;  for  if  the  pupil  has  not  had  experiences  which 
will  enable  him  to  relate  new  knowledge  to  that  already 
possessed,  he  will  make  but  little  progress.  For  example, 
there  are  many  facts  in  connection  with  the  life,  growth, 
character,  and  uses  of  plants,  trees,  and  other  vegetable  life 
which  a  person  must  know  before  he  can  understand  how 
a  plant  grows  and  reproduces  its  kind.  Certain  physical 
features,  such  as  rivers,  lakes,  seas,  mountains,  plains,  val- 
leys, must  be  understood  before  one  can  form  a  correct 


SUBJECT-MATTER  211 

conception  of  the  earth.  If  these  have  not  come  mto  the 
child's  experience  aheady,  some  provision  should  be  made 
in  the  subject-matter  for  his  acquiring  correct  concepts  of 
them.  It  often  happens  that  the  teacher  must  supply  oppor- 
tunities for  pupils  to  gain  certain  concepts  through  direct 
experience  as  a  preparation  for  receiving  new  information. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  basal  concepts  must  be 
acquired  through  actual  experience,  and  for  this  reason 
every  available  opportunity  for  gaining  them  through  direct 
experience  should  be  improved.  The  child  should  be  brought 
into  contact  with  his  environment  in  such  a  way  as  to  give 
him  fundamental  experiences  and  concepts.  The  value  of 
the  kindergarten  is  in  large  measure  due  to  the  concepts 
gained  by  the  children  from  the  games  and  occupations. 
Illustrations  and  experiences  with  material  concrete  objects 
should  be  given  in  the  recitation  whenever  possible.  A  man's 
knowledge  and  also  his  abiUty  to  gather  added  information  de- 
pend upon  the  number  of  useful  concepts  he  possesses;  hence 
it  is  important  that  he  accumulate  as  large  a  store  of  such 
concepts  as  he  can.  Since  the  basal  concepts  are  acquired 
largely  in  childhood  and  new  knowledge  is  interpreted  and 
acquired  by  means  of  these,  it  is  evident  that  provision 
should  be  made  in  the  curriculum  for  subject-matter  that 
is  rich  in  concept-forming  material. 

Relation  of  subject-matter  to  present  civilization.  Subject- 
matter  should  bear  a  close  relation  to  the  life  of  the  present 
day,  and  the  test  which  must  be  applied  in  selecting  it  is 
whether  it  does  pertain  to  or  interpret  the  present  civiliza- 
tion. Unless  it  will  stand  the  test  of  the  present  demand 
that  it  serve  as  a  means  of  realizing  this  educational  aim, 
it  should  not  be  given  a  place  in  the  course  of  study  nor 
should  tlie  pupil's  time  be  squandered  in  acquiring  it.  The 
course  of  study  in  the  American  pubhc  school  should  grow 
out  of  and  represent  the  complex  civilization  of  the  America 


812  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACfflNG 

of  to-day.  If  it  did,  then  to  acquire  the  subject-matter  in  our 
pubHc  schools  would  be  to  understand  American  civiHzation 
and  become  acquainted  with  American  ideals  both  national 
and  individual.  In  evaluating  subject-matter  upon  the  ba- 
sis of  what  it  reveals  of  national  life,  it  follows  that  the 
material  of  most  value  is  that  which  contributes  most  in 
gaining  a  knowledge  of  our  national  civilization. 

Emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  the  subjects  which  will 
enable  the  child  to  know  and  understand  the  present.  The 
two  general  subjects  of  history  and  science  including  geog- 
raphy are  without  question  the  most  valuable  ones  for  this 
purpose.  History  gives  important  material  from  the  past 
with  which  to  compare  and  interpret  the  present,  and 
science  enables  us  to  know  and  understand  what  is  being 
done  in  the  world  to-day  and  the  conditions  under  which  we 
live.  These  subjects  should  receive  more  emphasis  in  the 
school  curriculum  than  they  generally  do;  in  fact,  they 
should  be  given  the  most  important  place  in  the  course  of 
study  for  all  grades  and  also  in  the  high  schools  and  the 
colleges.  It  is  the  needs  of  present-day  civihzation,  not  the 
conventions  of  the  past,  that  should  determine  the  subject- 
matter  for  the  course  of  study  for  our  schools.  Tested  by 
this  standard,  what  more  impractical  matter  could  be  found 
than  some  of  that  prescribed  for  college  entrance  require- 
ments which  determine  the  course  of  study  for  many  of  our 
high  schools?  Until  these  higher  institutions  of  learning 
make  present-day  needs,  and  not  the  standards  of  the  past, 
the  determining  factors  in  arranging  their  curricula,  we 
cannot  hope  for  universal  reforms  in  the  selection  of  sub- 
ject-matter in  our  secondary  schools.  However,  the  many 
changes  from  the  useless  to  the  practical,  in  the  courses  of 
study  in  the  schools  in  all  parts  of  our  country,  give  promise 
that  the  subject-matter  will  more  and  more  be  taken  from 
the  civilization  of  the  present  instead  of  that  of  the  past. 


SUBJECT-MATTER  213 

Subject-matter  for  teaching  symbols  of  knowledge.  The 
entu'e  effort  of  the  teachers  of  the  lower  grades  was  formerly 
concentrated  upon  teaching  children  the  tools  or  symbols  of 
knowledge,  quite  apart  from  any  subject-matter  in  which 
they  might  be  interested  or  from  which  they  might  gain  any 
useful  knowledge.  This  made  learning  to  read,  to  spell,  or  to 
"do  number  work"  a  laborious  and  irksome  task.  More- 
over, the  pupil's  progress  was  based  entirely  upon  the 
objective  result  of  learning  the  symbols,  and  the  subjective 
result  was  altogether  ignored.  It  has  at  length  been  discov- 
ered that  these  and  all  the  other  symbols  of  knowledge  can 
be  taught  just  as  thoroughly,  and  usually  more  quickly, 
if  presented  in  connection  with  subject-matter  contauiing 
useful  facts  and  ideas  which  the  pupil  should  learn.  Besides, 
the  presentation  of  concrete  matter  makes  the  subject  more 
interesting  to  the  learner  and  faciUtates  his  acquisition  of  it. 

With  the  introduction  of  pedagogical  principles  into 
teaching,  teachers  have  learned  the  value  of  using  subject- 
matter  having  useful  content  for  the  teaching  of  the  symbols 
of  knowledge  and,  as  a  result,  they  have  turned  their  efforts 
toward  providing  the  pupil  with  useful  subject-matter  which 
will  serve  as  the  material  through  which  he  will  gain  a  mas- 
tery over  words,  numbers,  and  other  necessary  symbols. 
With  this  new  plan  the  child  gains  much  useful  information 
while  learning  to  read,  to  spell,  and  to  multiply,  —  in  short 
while  acquiring  skill  in  the  use  of  all  the  tools  of  knowledge. 
By  this  means  much  of  the  former  waste  in  the  child's 
school  day  is  corrected,  for  while  acquiring  a  knowledge  of 
the  symbols,  he  makes  real  growth  in  the  acquisition  of  val- 
uable information  and  in  vital  subjective  results. 

Matter  for  its  cultural  value.  Education  is  frequently 
thought  of  as  being  synonymous  witli  knowledge,  and  is 
spoken  of  in  the  quantitative  sense  as  indicating  a  large 
amount  or   quantity  of  knowledge.    There   are,  however, 


214  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

subjective  results  in  education  that  are  quite  as  positive  as 
quantitative  knowledge.  One  of  these  results  to  the  indi- 
vidual is  termed  ''  culture."  Among  the  results  of  education 
this  one  is  considered  of  such  importance  that  an  individual 
who  does  not  acquire  it  during  the  process  of  education  is 
not  considered  an  educated  person  no  matter  how  much 
knowledge  he  may  have  accumulated.  By  culture  is  meant 
that  development  and  refining  of  the  intellectual  and  moral 
nature  through  education  which  gives  one  the  power  to 
know,  to  appreciate,  and  constantly  to  enjoy  the  beauti- 
ful in  nature,  in  conduct,  in  art,  and  in  life.  It  is  directly 
opposed  to  whatever  is  coarse,  low,  vulgar,  and  to  all  things 
that  by  their  nature  are  antagonistic  to  human  welfare. 
Culture  is  the  phase  of  education  that  gives  quality,  finish, 
and  moral  excellence  to  the  individual.  It  is  not  a  veneer,  a 
thin  coating  of  polish;  nor  is  it,  like  a  social  veneer,  apparent 
only  in  certain  social  situations.  On  the  contrary,  it  char- 
acterizes the  whole  life  and  conduct  of  the  person  possessing 
it;  for  it  permeates  the  entire  fiber  of  the  individual  and 
becomes  an  integral  part  of  his  whole  nature. 

It  has  been  said  that  culture  is  a  subjective  result  of  edu- 
cation. As  such  it  grows,  expands,  and  thrives  through  the 
exercise  of  the  aesthetic  feelings  and  emotions.  If  these  are 
not  aroused,  there  will  be  no  growth  in  culture.  It  is  there- 
fore necessary  that  subject-matter  should  be  provided  that 
will  call  these  into  activity.  Although  nearly  every  subject 
of  the  curriculum  has  elements  which  if  properly  used  will 
appeal  to  the  aesthetic  sense,  there  are  some  subjects  that 
are  richer  in  these  elements  than  others  and,  hence,  make  a 
more  direct  appeal  to  the  aesthetic  sense  than  others  do.  For 
their  cultural  value  these  subjects  should  have  a  place  in  the 
curriculum.  History  and  literature,  as  well  as  all  branches 
of  art,  have  cultural  value  and  make  direct  ai)i)eals  to  the 
love  and  a]>prcciation  of  the  beautiful  when  there  is  the 


SUBJECT-MATTER  815 

proper  background  of  information  and  emotion  to  make 
possible  an  understanding  and  interpretation  of  the  appeal. 
Thus,  music,  painting,  sculjiture,  poetry,  and  other  arts  are 
highly  cultural  and  should  in  some  form  have  a  place  in 
the  school  curriculum.  Nature  is  a  veritable  storehouse  of 
subject-matter  that  may  be  used  for  its  cultural  value. 
Satisfaction  and  enjoyment  in  the  study  and  contemplation 
of  nature  is  proof  that  there  is  cultural  growth;  and  increas- 
ing appreciation  and  love  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  for  all 
culture-producing  features  of  education  will  show  the 
teacher  tliat  valuable  subjective  reactions  have  resulted 
from  his  teaching. 

Subject-matter  for  vocational  instruction.  There  has  been 
much  discussion  during  recent  years  in  the  educational 
world  concerning  vocational  education  and  the  duty  of  the 
public  school  toward  the  matter.  The  two  main  points 
around  which  the  discussion  has  centered  are,  first,  the  age 
at  which  a  child  may  begin  special  preparation  for  vocational 
activity,  and  second,  what  shall  be  the  character  of  the 
subject-matter  for  prevocational  instruction.  No  satisfac- 
tory conclusion  has  been  reached,  for  the  attempts  at  solv- 
ing these  questions  represent  merely  the  personal  opinions 
of  the  various  persons  concerned  with  the  problem  of  voca- 
tional instruction  for  the  young.  There  is,  however,  fairly 
general  agreement  among  educators  that  a  child  should 
receive  at  least  a  general  elementary,  cultural  education 
before  he  begins  the  formal  preparation  for  a  special  voca- 
tion. Vocations  have  become  so  numerous  and  their  demand 
so  exacting  that  special  instruction  can  be  given  for  very 
few  of  them  in  the  public  schools  excej^t  in  those  cases  where 
sjjecial  buildings  and  equipments  can  be  secured.  To  give 
practical  instruction  in  the  industrial  vocations  requires 
complete  equipment  and  special  teachers,  which  add  greatly 
to  the  expense  of  the  school  system.   This  extra  expense,  a 


216  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

large  majority  of  communities  do  not  as  yet  feel  warranted 
in  incurring,  and  prefer  to  await  the  outcome  of  the  experi- 
ments along  this  line  that  are  being  tried  in  some  of  the 
larger  cities.  In  the  case  of  the  commercial  vocations,  the 
average  school  cannot  give  much  vocational  instruction  for 
the  reason  that  these  occupations  are  highly  specialized  and 
the  school  lacks  the  means  for  giving  the  necessary  experi- 
ence in  them.  It  is  true  that  most  schools  do  give  instruction 
in  various  commercial  branches,  such  as  bookkeeping  and 
typewriting,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  looking  toward 
temporary  clerical  positions;  but  this  instruction  is  not 
really  vocational,  but  rather  prevocational  in  its  nature. 
The  demand  for  regular  instruction  for  the  commercial 
vocations  has  become  so  great  that  commercial  courses  are 
now  provided  in  many  of  the  colleges  and  in  special  schools 
of  commerce.  The  professions  naturally  require  special 
courses  in  colleges  that  have  departments  expressly  for  giv- 
ing instruction  in  them.  While  the  average  pubUc  school  is 
not  equipped  to  give  instruction  in  the  vocations,  all  can 
provide  for  some  prevocational  instruction  and  guidance. 
Some  suggestions  regarding  the  means  and  methods  by  which 
this  may  be  done  will  be  given  in  subsequent  chapters. 

Subject-matter  from  all  fields  of  knowledge.  The  child  is 
in  the  midst  of  the  complete  life  of  the  nation  in  which  he 
lives.  In  various  ways  he  touches  nearly  every  field  of  human 
interest  in  one  or  more  of  its  phases,  and  he  gathers  some 
facts  from  each.  In  this  way  he  acquires  an  unorganized 
mass  of  information  which  must  be  arranged  and  defined 
before  it  can  become  a  practical  and  usable  body  of  knowl- 
edge. For  example,  he  learns  some  facts  of  geography, 
physiology,  physics,  chemistry,  and  astronomy;  but  he  does 
not  know  them  as  facts  of  any  science,  for  his  information 
has  not  as  yet  been  put  into  the  universal  language  of  these 
branches.  It  must  be  organized  and  defined  in  order  that  he 


SUBJECT-MATTER  217 

may  be  able  to  add  to  it  from  the  classified  knowledge  of  the 
sciences  and  thus  increase  his  store  of  definite  knowledge. 
In  the  quest  for  facts  of  general  interest  which  every  person 
should  know,  the  course  of  study  of  the  elementary  school 
should  draw  upon  all  sources  of  useful  knowledge.  Every 
person  should  know  some  of  the  truths  of  natural  history, 
of  geology,  of  chemistry,  and  other  subjects  of  human 
interest  and  should  know  them  as  facts  of  these  different 
branches  of  knowledge.  If  this  point  is  kept  in  mind  in  the 
selection  of  subject-matter,  much  of  the  general  information 
which  the  child  has  acquired  without  conscious  effort  will 
be  of  great  service  to  him  in  the  acquisition  of  further  infor- 
mation and  in  the  practical  activities  of  everyday  life. 

Many  teachers  seem  to  think  that  instruction  in  the  ele- 
mentary grades  must  be  limited  to  a  small  number  of  sub- 
jects that  are  particularly  easy  to  comprehend,  and  that 
subject-matter  to  be  used  below  the  high  school  and  the  col- 
lege cannot  be  taken  from  the  general  fields  of  human  inter- 
est. They  do  not  take  account  of  the  fact  that  the  child's 
life  brings  him  in  contact  with  various  departments  of  knowl- 
edge and  gives  him  experiences  and  fundamental  facts  for 
his  later  study  of  these  subjects.  Further,  they  do  not  under- 
stand that  in  every  field  of  human  interest  there  are  funda- 
mental facts  and  truths  that  if  properly  presented  any  child 
can  understand.  Human  experiences  and  knowledge  are 
interrelated  and  in  such  a  manner  that  the  basal  facts  of  all 
contribute  to  a  clearer  understanding  of  each.  For  example, 
a  study  of  the  industry  of  wheat-growing  includes  some  facts 
about  geography,  botany,  physics,  chemistry,  history,  so- 
ciology, economics,  mathematics,  and  commerce,  as  well 
as  facts  about  agriculture.  To  such  facts  of  general  knowl- 
edge as  the  child  has  already  acquired,  to  serve  as  a  nucleus, 
the  teacher  adds  other  facts,  and  thus  the  child's  knowl- 
edge is  continually  enlarged  and  his  experiences  enriched. 


218  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

Subject-matter  should  be  adapted  to  the  development  of 
the  child.  It  will  be  readily  understood  that  all  subject- 
matter  must  be  adapted  to  the  age,  experience,  and  under- 
standing of  the  child.  This  adaptation  of  the  matter  to  be 
taught  must  be  largely  the  work  of  the  individual  teacher, 
since  he  alone  knows  the  capabilities  and  experience  of  his 
pupils.  When  he  does  properly  adapt  subject-matter  to  the 
capacity  of  the  particular  child,  it  insures  interest  on  the 
part  of  the  latter,  with  the  corresponding  ease  in  acquiring 
the  new  matter.  It  insures,  also,  development  of  his  mental 
powers  and  a  desirable  subjective  response.  A  teacher's  abil- 
ity rightly  to  adapt  subject-matter  is  one  of  the  surest  means 
of  determining  his  capability  and  skill  as  an  instructor  of 
the  young,  and  his  inability  to  do  so  marks  him  as  inefficient 
in  one  of  the  most  essential  features  of  good  teaching.  More- 
over, the  failure  of  the  teacher  to  adapt  the  subject-matter 
of  the  curriculum  to  the  comprehension  of  his  pupils,  is  the 
cause  of  great  loss  to  the  pupils,  to  the  patrons  of  the  school, 
and  to  the  State. 

This  failure  occasions  loss  of  opportunity  and  consequent 
loss  of  time  to  the  pupil,  not  only  in  the  present,  but  also 
in  the  future,  when  the  knowledge  would  have  been  of  serv- 
ice to  him  had  he  possessed  it.  It  causes  loss  in  personality, 
for  not  only  has  the  child  been  deprived  of  such  instruction 
as  would  develop  his  inherent  capacities  to  their  highest 
degree  of  perfection,  thus  making  his  child  life  richer;  but 
it  has  robbed  him  of  that  development  and  foundation  upon 
which  his  future  life  would  have  been  built.  Because  of 
this  he  may  be  destined  to  fill  a  place  in  life  very  different 
from  the  one  for  which  he  was  intended  by  nature.  To  the 
parents  tliis  failure  means  loss,  because  they  do  not  receive 
adequate  returns  in  the  education  of  their  children  for  the 
money  they  expend  for  the  maintenance  of  the  school.  It 
means  loss  to  the  State;  for  the  educational  loss  to  the 


SUBJECT-MATTER  219 

children  affects  their  future  citizenship  and,  therefore,  the 
welfare  of  the  State.  Any  one  who  will  carefully  con- 
sider these  points  will  be  convinced  of  the  importance  of 
properly  adapting  the  subject-matter  to  the  capacity  of 
the  child.  Indeed,  so  important  is  the  matter  that  the 
teacher  who  has  learned  how  to  do  this  has  gone  far  to- 
ward becoming  an  efficient  instructor. 

Summary.  From  the  foregoing  discussion,  it  is  apparent 
that  if  the  ultimate  aim  of  education  is  to  be  realized  in  the 
preparation  of  the  individual  for  his  place  in  the  civilization 
of  the  present,  all  the  educative  agencies  must  be  judiciously 
employed  toward  this  end.  The  school,  as  the  agent  of  so- 
ciety in  directing  the  education  of  the  child,  must  select 
and  guide  the  various  influences  and  means  that  have  a 
share  in  the  educative  process.  The  school  must  decide 
upon  the  subject-matter  and  determine  how  it  shall  be 
used  for  the  attainment  of  the  true  educational  aim.  It  is 
through  properly  chosen  subject-matter  that  the  early 
concepts  growing  out  of  childliood  experiences  are  defined 
and  corrected.  Properly  selected  and  adapted  subject- 
matter  enables  the  child  to  gain  information  and  experiences 
in  the  right  sequence,  thus  saving  much  energy  and  time 
that  would  have  been  wasted  if  it  had  not  been  presented 
in  the  right  order  or  in  a  form  best  suited  to  his  develop- 
ment. It  is  the  duty  of  every  teacher,  from  the  lowest  to 
the  highest  grade,  to  make  such  a  selection  and  use  of  the 
subject-matter  of  the  course  of  study  that  through  it  the 
child  will  be  able  to  realize  all  the  benefits  which  it  offers. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Course  of  Study,  Yocum,  chap.  v. 

Meaning  of  Education,  Butler,  pp.  17-34,  51-66. 

School  Management,  Dutton,  pp.  111-18. 

Education  and  the  Larger  Life,  Hentlerson,  pp.  48-49. 

Principles  of  Educational  Practice,  Klappcr,  pp.  146-50. 


220  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

Art  of  Education,  Howerth,  pp.  127-36. 
Teaching  the  Language  Arts,  Hinsdale,  pp.  21-24. 
Principles  of  Elementary  Education,  Bachman,  pp.  183-204 
Types  of  Teaching,  Earhart,  pp.  1-14,  16-21. 
Changing  Conceptions  of  Education,  Cubberley,  chap.  v. 


EXERCISES 

1.  If  the  subject-matter  should  largely  grow  out  of  the  civilization  in 
which  the  child  lives,  show  why  a  knowledge  of  botany  is  more  valu- 
able to  the  average  child  than  Latin  or  Greek. 

2.  In  a  large  high  school  a  little  more  than  three  fifths  of  the  time  of  the 
whole  school  was  given  to  Latin,  German,  French,  and  mathematics, 
and  a  little  less  than  two  fifths  of  the  time  to  literature,  history,  Eng- 
lish, and  science.  Study  and  discuss  this  condition. 

3.  Name  some  of  the  questions  involved  in  selecting  subject-matter  for 
a  given  class. 

4.  If  you  were  looking  for  a  good  cook  which  of  the  following  would  you 
select:  The  person  who  best  understands  how  to  select  food,  the  one 
who  knows  best  how  to  cook  it,  or  the  one  who  knows  best  how  to 
serve  it? 

5.  The  great  teacher  selects  subject-matter  wisely,  prepares  it  skillfully, 
and  serves  it  invitingly.  In  which  department  is  the  average  teacher 
poorest?  In  which  department  are  you  strongest? 

6.  A  pupil  said:  "We  had  geography  soup,  fried  arithmetic,  baked 
grammar,  and  roasted  history  every  day,  and  as  there  was  hardly  any 
seasoning,  we  all  got  sick  of  the  meals."  What  did  the  pupil  mean 
by  this?  Is  it  an  unusual  condition?  In  how  many  ways  can  you  cook 
arithmetic? 

7.  Get  the  working  program  of  some  sixth-grade  teacher.  Study  it  by 
the  table  on  page  195.  Consider  time  per  week,  length  of  recita- 
tion, subjects  omitted,  subject  having  greatest  emphasis,  and  similar 
points. 

8.  Arrange  the  following  subjects  in  the  order  of  importance  according 
to  your  own  judgment:  arithmetic,  penmanship,  reading,  music, 
drawing,  language,  history,  Latin,  science,  and  literature. 

9.  "  All  science  is  represented  in  a  plant:  chemistry,  physics,  astronomy, 
physiology,  geography,  history,  geology."  Show  that  this  is  true. 

10.  Read  one  of  the  references  given  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  and  give 
your  views  of  it. 


CHAPTER  XII 

VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

A  vocation  or  a  job.  It  is  a  self-evident  fact  that  the  boys 
and  many  of  the  girls  in  our  public  schools  to-day  will 
eventually  engage  in  some  special  life-work  or  vocation,  or 
they  will  drift  into  the  great  unclassified  company  of  irreg- 
ular and  unskilled  workers.  Just  what  the  character  of  their 
work  will  be  depends  in  a  measure  upon  the  inclinations  and 
the  aptitude  of  the  pupils  themselves;  but  it  will  probably 
depend  in  a  still  larger  measure  upon  the  opportunities 
which  they  will  have  for  selecting  and  preparing  for  a  voca- 
tion and  the  use  which  they  will  make  of  these  opportunities. 
Those  who  make  an  intelligent  and  wise  choice  of  a  vocation 
and  fit  themselves  for  it  will  in  the  majority  of  cases  become 
self-supporting  and  productive  members  of  society.  Those 
who  do  not  will  sooner  or  later  be  forced  to  join  the  army 
of  cheap,  inefficient  laborers,  whose  low-productive  power 
renders  them  a  burden  to  society. 

Skilled  and  unskilled  workers.  The  working  population 
of  our  country  to-day  might  be  divided  roughly  according 
to  efficiency  into  two  classes,  skilled  and  unskilled  workers. 
By  a  skilled  worker  is  here  meant  one  who,  by  reason  of 
preparation  and  experience,  can  do  effectively  some  special 
kind  of  work,  industrial,  commercial,  or  professional.  He 
may  be  the  owner  or  manager  of  a  factory  or  other  industrial 
plant  and  direct  large  interests  and  have  other  persons  work- 
ing under  his  direction;  or  he  may  be  one  of  the  op)erators  or 
artisans  working  under  the  supervision  of  another.  He  may 
be  a  merchant,  the  o\\Tier  of  a  store  for  example;  or  he  may 
be  a  salesman,  a  bookkeeper,  or  other  employee  in  the  store 


222  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

or  the  mercantile  establishment  of  another  person.  He  may 
be  in  one  of  the  learned  professions,  or  he  may  be  a  me- 
chanic. Whatever  his  station  and  his  vocation,  if  he  does  his 
work  with  intelligence  and  skill,  he  may  be  classed  among 
skilled  workers.  The  unskilled  worker,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  one  who  has  no  technical  or  special  knowledge  of  any  vo- 
cation and  has  not  been  trained  for  any  particular  kind  of 
work.  He  is  not  able  to  compete  with  skilled  workers  and 
therefore  must  depend  upon  the  chance  jobs  and  menial 
tasks  that  require  no  special  preparation  or  skill. 

Paupers  and  criminals  recruited  from  army  of  tmskilled. 
It  is  from  the  army  of  the  unskilled  that  comes  the  largest 
percentage  of  the  paupers  and  criminals  that  must  be  sup- 
ported at  public  expense.  These  persons  do  not  contribute 
to  the  welfare  of  society.  In  fact  they  are  an  actual  burden 
and  menace  to  society.  They  are  parasites,  giving  nothing 
in  return  for  what  they  exact.  A  comparison  of  the  tables  of 
statistics,  showing  the  causes  of  poverty  in  any  of  our  great 
cities,  will  invariably  prove  that  the  single  cause  that  is 
responsible  for  the  largest  number  of  cases  is  vocational 
inefficiency.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  those  dependent 
upon  charity  are  persons  who  are  not  regularly  employed 
in  the  industries  because  of  lack  of  training  for  them.  They 
are  in  general  persons  who,  because  of  lack  of  capacity  or  of 
vocational  training  and  skill,  turn  from  one  to  another  of  the 
chance  jobs  that  come  in  their  way  and  hence  are  out  of 
employment  much  of  the  time.  This  condition  not  only 
keeps  them  poor  and  frequently  wholly  dependent  upon  the 
charity  of  others,  but  it  often  leads  them  into  crime.  The 
records  of  many  of  our  jails  and  penitentiaries  show  that 
the  majority  of  the  inmates  are  casual  and  unskilled  work- 
ers, the  number  of  this  class  in  some  instances  being  as  high 
as  eighty -five  per  cent  of  the  entire  number  confined. 

Vocational  training  as  a  remedy  for  poverty  and  crime.  If 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  223 

a  large  percentage  of  the  poverty  and  crime  which  society 
deplores  is  the  direct  result  of  vocational  inefficiency,  a  rem- 
edy for  this  condition  would  be  found  in  providing  the 
masses  with  the  means  of  vocational  training.  Since  society 
must  provide  for  its  paupers  and  unfortunates  and  protect 
itself  against  its  criminals  who  become  such  from  a  lack  of 
the  opportunity  for  this  definite  training,  it  would  seem  to 
be  for  the  interest  of  society  to  furnish  these  persons  the 
means  for  getting  this  training.  Vocational  instruction  as 
a  means  of  preventing  prisoners  from  returning  to  lives 
of  crime  after  they  are  released  is  the  reform  method  now 
being  employed  in  many  of  our  reformatories  and  prisons. 
Inmates  of  these  institutions  are  now  being  taught  trades 
and  various  vocations  by  which  their  wage-earning  capacity 
may  be  increased  in  order  that  they  may  be  able  to  make  an 
honest  living  after  leaving  prison.  To  this  is  added  in  many 
cases  practical  academic  instruction,  not  alone  for  its  cul- 
tural value,  but  for  the  purpose  of  equipping  these  men  for 
the  new  start  in  life  that  awaits  them  just  beyond  the  prison 
doors. 

One  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  sixteen  ounces  of  cure, 
and  if  vocational  training  is  a  good  curative  measure  for 
poverty  and  crime,  it  must  be  a  still  better  preventive  meas- 
ure for  these  ills.  How  much  more  effective  it  would  be, 
then,  to  use  it  as  a  preventive  measure,  by  fitting  the  young 
for  self-support  and  self-respecting  citizenship,  than  it  is  to 
use  it  as  a  curative  measure  after  they  have  become  paupers 
and  criminals.  Curative  measures  are  to  be  commended  but 
preventive  measures  are  still  better.  If  the  latter  measure 
were  used  now,  the  coming  generation  of  workers  would 
be  efficient  and  would  find  a  ready  market  for  their  knowl- 
edge and  skill  before  lack  of  employment,  idleness,  and 
poverty  had  led  them  into  crime.  Thus,  much  of  tliat 
pauperism  and  crime  which  are  the  result  of  lack  of  voca- 


iU  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

tional  training  and  eflBciency  would  be  prevented,  and  soci- 
ety, as  well  as  the  individual,  would  be  benefited.  There  is, 
therefore,  a  twofold  reason  why  a  community  should  provide 
its  young  with  the  means  for  vocational  education;  the  duty 
which  it  owes  to  its  children  and  the  duty  which  it  owes  to 
itself.  These  two  duties  are  so  closely  related  that  when  the 
community  discharges  the  one,  it  also  discharges  the  other; 
for  by  training  its  members  for  social  efl&ciency,  society  best 
contributes  to  its  own  stability.  A  prominent  educator  in 
discussing  the  social  value  of  vocational  education  says: — 

Society  is  deprived  of  the  increased  productivity  which  would 
result  from  developing  in  each  and  every  one  of  its  individuals  the 
greatest  amount  of  skill  of  which  he  or  she  is  capable;  and  the 
scarcity  of  skilled  workmen  who  can  command  good  wages,  to- 
gether with  the  superabundance  of  unskilled  workmen  who  can 
command  only  the  lowest  rate  of  wages,  furnishes  a  continual 
handicap  to  the  increase  in  the  efficiency  of  production.  The  result 
is  twofold.  First,  the  rate  of  production  is  kept  down  and  society 
is  the  loser.  Second,  thousands  of  human  beings,  who  might  be 
useful  and  happy  citizens,  live  and  die  in  poverty  and  misery,  and 
again  society  is  the  loser. 

Place  of  vocational  education  in  preparation  for  life.  Edu- 
cation to  be  practical  must  fit  for  life.  Therefore  that  educa- 
tion is  best  which  best  fits  the  individual,  through  the  culti- 
vation of  all  his  faculties,  for  his  particular  place  in  life  and 
enables  him  to  function  properly  with  the  civilization  of 
which  he  is  a  part.  In  order  that  he  may  have  this  kind  of 
education  —  this  practical  preparation  for  life  —  his  instruc- 
tion and  training  must  be  adapted  to  his  needs  and  given 
with  direct  reference  to  his  particular  circumstances.  It 
must  be  such  as  to  connect  directly  with  life,  as  it  is  being 
lived  at  the  present,  and  it  must  meet  the  common  every- 
day demands  of  American  society.  The  educating  forces 
should  send  the  individual  out  into  the  world  with  the 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  225 

ability  to  use  to  the  extent  of  his  development  and  capabili- 
ties all  that  he  has  learned.  An  educational  system  is  ade- 
quate just  so  far  as  it  succeeds  in  doing  this.  The  demands 
which  the  civilization  of  the  present  makes  upon  the  lawyer, 
the  doctor,  and  the  banker  are  very  different  from  the  de- 
mands which  it  makes  upon  the  carpenter,  the  blacksmith, 
and  the  mechanic.  Hence,  education  of  the  same  kind  will 
not  fit  every  case,  but  must  be  differentiated,  according  to 
the  needs  of  each.  The  necessity  for  adapting  instruction  to 
the  diversified  requirements  of  society  and  the  individuals 
composing  it  is  becoming  a  directive  force  in  education. 

Until  recently  the  same  instruction  was  given  to  children 
in  all  parts  of  the  country  witliout  regard  to  local  conditions 
or  requirements  or  to  the  particular  needs  of  the  individual. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  this  system  of  teaching  did  not  in 
all  cases  fit  for  life  and,  as  a  result,  that  there  has  been  an 
ever-increasing  demand  that  education  be  brought  into 
more  intimate  relation  with  the  everyday  life  of  the  masses. 
Since  about  eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  children  in  the  schools 
are  in  the  elementary  grades,  it  is  evident  that  the  instruc- 
tion given  in  the  public  and  other  elementary  schools  should 
be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  this  large  number  who  will  go 
out  into  the  world  to  take  up  life  early,  as  well  as  to  the  few 
who  are  preparing  for  college  entrance  examinations.  Since 
society  is  largely  the  result  of  the  organization  of  the  voca- 
tional activities  which  compose  it,  it  follows  that  the  indi- 
vidual cannot  contribute  to  the  social  structure  to  the  full 
extent  of  his  capabilities  unless  he  is  in  possession  of  special 
vocational  technique.  In  other  words,  he  must  have  voca- 
tional education  as  well  as  cultural  and  moral  education,  in 
order  to  be  productive  to  society  in  the  highest  degree.  The 
relation  of  society  to  the  vocational  education  of  the  young 
is  not  merely  a  question  of  duty  to  the  individual.  It  is  a 
self-preservation  measure. 


23(3  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

Need  of  vocational  education  recognized.  If  the  foregoing 
conclusion  is  correct,  then  it  is  evident  that  during  the  period 
of  childhood  and  youth  there  should  be,  in  addition  to  the 
cultural  and  moral  preparation  for  life  and  citizenship,  a 
definite  vocational  preparation.  Just  how  and  when  and 
where  this  preparation  should  be  made,  if  not  in  reality  the 
most  vital,  is  one  of  the  vital  questions  in  education  to-day. 
National  and  state  teachers'  associations  have  taken  up  the 
question  in  an  endeavor  to  formulate  plans  looking  toward 
giving  this  practical  phase  of  education  a  place  in  the  school 
curriculum.  Congress  and  the  legislative  bodies  of  many  of 
the  States,  cooperating  with  educators,  have  considered  the 
question  and  have  passed  legislation  with  a  view  to  putting 
vocational  training  into  the  public  schools.  Boards  of  educa- 
tion in  the  various  cities,  in  conjunction  with  superintend- 
ents and  teachers,  are  giving  tliis  important  problem  their 
serious  attention  and  are  bringing  to  its  solution  their  best 
thought  and  effort.  Experiments  of  various  kinds  are  being 
made  and  theories  and  plans  are  being  thoroughly  tested  in 
the  effort  to  arrive  at  a  satisfactory  answer  as  to  how  this 
instruction  can  be  given.  Many  of  the  plans  and  methods 
that  are  being  tested  show  most  satisfactory  results  and  give 
promise  of  great  advancement  along  this  line  of  education. 
As  a  further  indication  of  the  popular  trend,  exi)eriments 
that  have  met  with  success  in  certain  cities  are  being 
adapted  to  the  conditions  and  needs  of  other  cities  and  put 
into  operation. 

Practical  education  movement  result  of  a  popular  demand. 
The  causes  of  this  widespread  movement  toward  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  ideals  and  aims  of  education  and  the  function 
of  the  school  are  easily  explained.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  fully  half  of  the  children  in  the  elementary  grades  drop 
out  of  school  before  or  by  the  time  that  they  reach  the  end 
of  the  compulsory  school  age,  this  exodus  beginning  as  early 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  227 

as  the  fourth  grade.  Some  of  these  pupils  leave  from  neces- 
sity to  become  wage-earners;  but  the  larger  proportion 
leave  because  the  instruction  given  does  not  appeal  to  them 
or  to  their  parents  as  worth  while,  or  as  being  of  value  to 
them  in  increasing  their  wage-earning  power.  This  is  a 
severe  criticism  of  the  schools,  but  whether  justified  or  not 
does  not  concern  us  at  present.  It  is  the  fact  and  the  sig- 
nificance of  this  exodus  with  which  we  are  concerned. 

The  Committee  on  Vocational  Education  and  Guidance, 
at  the  meeting  of  the  National  Education  Association  in 
1913,  said:  — 

On  every  hand  now  comes  the  renewed  determination  to  arrive 
at  a  more  permanent  sokition  of  many  of  the  questions  involved. 
The  manufacturers'  associations,  the  social  and  philanthropic 
workers,  the  labor  unions,  those  interested  in  education,  the  peo- 
ple themselves  are  all  striving  to  discover  the  means  which  shall 
bring  about  the  desired  result.  All  are  endeavoring  to  reach  a  con- 
clusion which  may  be  placed  before  the  world  as  one  of  the  methods 
through  which  better  things  may  be  evolved,  not  alone  for  the  in- 
dividual but  for  society  as  a  whole.  This  whole  movement  has  re- 
sulted in  a  new  demand  upon  the  public  schools. 

Early  attempts  at  practical  education  —  Manual  training. 
Life  in  these  latter  days  has  grown  away  from  the  school, 
and  it  was  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  educators  to  make  the 
public  schools  articulate  better  with  life  that  led  to  the 
introduction  of  manual  training  and  domestic  science  into 
the  course  of  study.  Manual  training,  as  the  name  implies, 
has  to  do  with  the  handling  or  manipulation  of  materials 
with  the  hands.  It  is  not  vocational  training  as  many  people 
think,  but  is  distinctly  educational  in  its  purpose.  The 
educational  argument  for  giving  it  a  place  in  the  curriculum 
of  the  public  schools  is  based  upon  the  fundamental  proposi- 
tion that  knowledge  of  material  things  through  actual  touch 
and  manipulation  should  be  possessed  by  every  one.    Such 


228  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

knowledge  is  necessary  in  order  to  make  clear  those  concepts 
that  can  be  gained  only  through  actual  contact  and  touch. 
Work  in  manual  training,  through  the  handling  of  tools, 
woods,  and  other  materials  should  be  rich  in  concepts;  and 
the  teacher's  aim  should  be  to  direct  pupils  in  gaining  these 
concepts  rather  than  in  developing  technical  skill.  As  a 
means  of  teaching  valuable  concepts,  manual  training  has 
as  much  right  to  a  place  in  the  course  of  study  as  history, 
geography,  and  science  have.    All  are  rich  in  concepts. 

Another  important  educational  result  of  manual  activity 
is  the  opportunity  it  affords  for  the  exercise  of  the  hands  in 
the  manipulation  of  materials.  Through  the  handling  of 
tools  and  materials,  the  child  gains  experience  with  the  uses 
of  these  tools  and  materials,  and  the  possibilities  of  the 
materials.  This  knowledge  is  both  useful  and  broadening. 
Besides  many  children  will  develop  skill  in  the  use  of  tools 
in  making  things,  and  to  those  who  may  later  on  find  their 
occupations  or  vocations  in  the  manual  arts,  this  will  prove 
especially  helpful  in  giving  them  some  experience  in  the 
handhng  of  materials  and  gaining  useful  concepts  of  them. 
This  phase  of  manual  activity  may  be  made  distinctly  pre- 
vocational,  as  will  be  shown  later.  There  is  often  another 
result  from  manual  training  which  is  distinctly  practical, 
and  that  is  its  value  as  a  means  to  vocational  guidance.  By 
bringing  out  the  inclinations  and  the  capabilities  of  certain 
individuals  who  have  an  aptitude  for  hand  work,  it  often 
serves  to  direct  them  in  the  selection  of  a  vocation  which 
will  give  them  the  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  their  best 
powers.  The  possibilities  of  manual  training  in  the  work- 
ing program  of  the  public  schools  are  great,  if  the  work  is 
properly  directed  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  call  out  the  full 
educational  value  and  produce  the  desirable  subjective  re- 
sponse in  tlie  child. 

Domestic  science.    As  another  step   in    the  movement 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  229 

toward  making  the  education  of  the  schools  more  practical, 
domestic  science  was  added  to  the  course  of  study.  At  first 
this  took  the  form  of  sewing  and  cooking,  to  which  were 
later  added  instruction  in  various  household  arts.  The 
underlying  purpose  in  this  was  to  give  to  girls  that  practical 
knowledge  of  the  household  arts  which  they  would  need  in 
the  discharge  of  their  duties  in  the  home.  Incidently  it  has 
served  another  purpose,  the  value  of  which  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. It  has  given  dignity  to  the  work  of  the  home  and 
the  duties  of  the  housekeeper  and  home-maker.  The  home 
is  the  unit  of  society.  It  ministers  to  the  physical  needs  of 
those  who  direct  and  control  the  whole  social  system,  polit- 
ical, economical,  and  moral.  The  home  also  nurtures  and 
rears  those  persons  who  will  direct  and  control  the  social 
system  of  the  future.  It  must  feed  and  clothe  them,  and  it 
must,  to  a  large  degree,  provide  for  their  mental  and  spiritual 
needs  as  well.  The  character  of  the  home  and  the  way  in 
which  it  ministers  to  the  needs  of  its  inmates  will  in  a  large 
measure  determine  the  character  and  welfare  of  the  nation. 
The  problem  of  the  home-maker  is  not  one  to  be  treated 
lightly.  She  is  responsible  for  giving  her  family  the  kind  of 
food  that  will  best  nourish  their  bodies  and  thus  make  pos- 
sible the  full  and  best  exercise  of  their  physical  and  mental 
powers.  She  is  responsible  for  the  proper  kind  of  clothing 
for  the  younger  members  of  the  family,  at  least.  She  is 
responsible  for  the  wise  expenditure  of  the  household  funds. 
Moreover,  she  is  responsible  for  the  mental  and  moral 
atmosphere  of  the  home.  It  is  she  who  must  set  the  right 
standards,  give  the  true  sense  of  values,  and  create  and  keep 
alive  the  spirit  that  makes  the  true  home.  The  home- 
maker  must  have  the  training  that  will  enable  her  to  do  all 
these  things,  and  instruction  in  domestic  science  is  given  to 
provide  this  training. 
Vocational  instruction   a    school   problem.    Vocational 


230  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

training  as  a  preparation  for  entering  the  industrial  and 
business  world  is  quite  another  matter  from  the  basal  or 
prevocational  instruction.  The  purpose  of  prevocational 
instruction  is  general.  It  is  the  laying  of  the  foundation  for 
later  special  vocational  education  and  training.  Distinct 
vocational  instruction  has  for  its  purpose  the  preparation  of 
a  person  for  a  particular  vocation,  with  a  view  to  his  making 
it  his  regular  occupation  and  means  of  gaining  a  livelihood. 
The  term  "  vocation  "  is  not  confined  to  the  industries,  but 
includes  commercial  pursuits  and  professions  as  well;  but 
inasmuch  as  the  entire  course  of  study  of  the  schools  has 
long  been  arranged  with  the  distinct  purpose  of  preparing 
for  coUege  and  laying  the  foundation  for  the  professions, 
the  new  feature  in  prevocational  instruction  is  concerned 
with  the  industries  and  with  the  various  departments  of 
business.  Bookkeeping,  stenography,  and  commercial  sub- 
jects have  long  been  regarded  as  legitimate  school  studies, 
but  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  instruction  has  been 
given  that  prepares  for  industrial  as  well  as  commercial 
pursuits. 

Training  for  the  industries  was  formerly  the  business  of 
the  shops  and  the  trades,  and  it  was  obtained  through  the 
time-honored  apprentice  system.  It  is  because  the  modern 
factory  system  and  machinery  have  made  this  method  im- 
practicable that  the  responsibility  for  this  kind  of  instruc- 
tion is  being  laid  upon  the  public  school.  Now,  when  skill 
and  mastery  are  more  than  ever  necessary  for  gaining  a 
respectable  livelihood,  and  the  boy  can  no  longer  obtain 
his  vocational  instruction  and  training  through  apprentice- 
ship, the  question  of  providing  him  with  this  instruction 
becomes  a  very  serious  problem.  Just  what  the  relation  of 
the  school  to  this  problem  is  has  not  yet  been  clearly  de- 
fined, and  there  is  still  much  diversity  of  opinion  regard- 
ing it.  Notwithstanding  the  enthusiastic  supix)rters  of  the 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  231 

movement  on  the  part  of  the  public  at  large  there  are  a 
great  many  educators  and  others  who  oppose  the  school's 
undertaking  the  task.  The  latter  class  object  either  on  the 
ground  that  they  consider  this  kind  of  instruction  outside 
the  province  of  the  school,  or  because  they  think  that 
the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  giving  it  are  insurmountable. 

Complex  civilization  makes  educational  problem  difficult. 
This  new  demand  upon  the  public  school,  that  it  equip  the 
child  for  his  vocational  activity  is  rendered  the  more  diffi- 
cult because  of  the  complex  character  of  the  civilization  for 
which  this  instruction  must  provide.  In  fact,  the  most  diffi- 
cult problem  in  all  education  to-day  is  how  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  our  highly  siKJcialized  society,  in  the  task 
of  preparing  the  child  for  all  around  social  efficiency.  This  is 
equally  true  of  vocational  and  of  cultural  education.  Every 
department  of  activity  is  divided  and  subdivided  to  a  degree 
not  dreamed  of  in  the  simpler  vocational  life  of  the  past, 
each  calling  for  specialized  workers  who  are  experts  in  their 
various  occupations.  Formerly  a  workman  understood  and 
could  perform  all  the  various  parts  of  the  work  of  his  particu- 
lar industry.  If  he  were  an  expert  in  his  trade,  he  knew  how 
to  do  any  part  of  the  work  connected  with  it.  To-day, 
owing  to  the  subdivisions  of  the  productive  industries, 
trained  specialists  are  required  for  each  part  of  the  work. 

The  preparation  of  the  highly  specialized  workmen  re- 
quired to  carry  on  a  printing  business  furnishes  an  example. 
In  the  earlier  days,  a  printer  could  set  and  distribute  type, 
set  up  job  work,  operate  a  press,  do  reportorial  work,  write 
a  bit,  and  in  a  general  way  do  any  part  of  the  work  in  the 
printing  and  newspaper  office.  Now,  however,  the  work  of 
a  large  printing-plant  requires  specialists  who  are  skilled  in 
their  respective  lines.  These  consist  of  pressmen,  linotypists, 
job  printers,  monotypists,  and  other  specialists,  while  for 
the  work  of  securing  and  preparing  news  and  other  matter 


232  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

editors  and  reporters  are  also  required.  The  work  of  each 
person  is  Hmited  to  a  particular  department  of  the  business, 
in  which  he  must  be  an  expert.  Shoemaking  is  also  typical 
of  many  examples  that  might  be  taken  from  the  trades.  In 
the  past  shoes  were  made  by  individual  shoemakers,  one 
man  being  able  to  perform  all  the  work  of  making  a  pair  of 
shoes,  a  trade  which  he  had  learned  from  a  shoemaker  by 
serving  an  apprenticeship  in  a  shoeshop.  He  could  cut  out 
and  put  a  shoe  together,  and  when  it  passed  from  his  hands 
it  was  a  finished  product.  He  had  the  joy  of  creative  work 
and  each  successive  pair  made  a  new  appeal  to  him  and  a 
corresponding  demand  upon  his  skill.  The  shoemaker  of 
the  little  shop  has  practically  disappeared,  for  shoes  can 
now  be  made  much  cheaper  in  great  factories,  where  a  large 
company  of  workers  are  employed  in  the  different  tasks  con- 
nected with  the  making  of  a  single  shoe,  each  performing 
only  a  special  part  of  the  work.  It  may  be  merely  to  operate 
the  machine  which  punches  the  eyelets  for  the  laces  or  the 
one  that  works  the  buttonholes.  There  are  no  real  shoe- 
makers in  the  establishment,  only  operators  of  machines  of 
which  they  are  essentially  a  part,  machines  which  they  have 
learned  to  operate  through  special  training.  The  difficulties 
of  preparing  for  these  highly  specialized  industries  will  be 
apparent  to  all  who  give  the  matter  a  little  consideration. 

Basis  for  vocational  instruction  wanting.  Another  grave 
difficulty  which  confronts  the  school  in  the  task  of  preparing 
children  for  practical  living  is  the  fact  that  those  who  most 
need  this  training  often  lack  the  educational  basis  for  it. 
It  is  evident  that  the  children  who  leave  school  early,  to 
become  wage-earners  either  from  necessity  or  from  lack  of 
interest  in  school,  are  the  very  ones  who  most  need  the  help 
of  the  school  in  preparing  for  their  tasks  as  industrial  work- 
ers. This  condition  makes  it  the  more  difficult  to  give  chil- 
dren this  help.   They  have  no  basis  for  this  training,  either 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  233 

in  academic  preparation  for  life  and  its  duties,  or  in  a  right 
conception  of  the  vocations  and  their  own  relation  to  them. 
The  need  of  vocational  training  for  the  masses  and  the  con- 
sequent demand  upon  the  public  school  make  it  apparent 
that  the  school  must  furnish  the  vocational  foundation  for 
the  masses  who  will  enter  the  industries,  as  well  as  for  the 
few  who  will  enter  the  professions  and  the  higher  branches 
of  business.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  school  is  to  help  this 
large  class,  two  things  are  necessary:  the  school  must 
provide  the  practical  instruction  in  vocational  foundation 
or  prevocational  work,  and  pupils  must  be  held  in  school 
until  they  receive  it.  This  basis  for  vocational  instruction 
presents  two  phases :  the  one  the  need  of  instruction  leading 
to  vocations,  and  the  other  the  academic  preparation  neces- 
sary for  the  individual  in  his  particular  vocation  and  his 
place  in  society. 

The  lack  of  preparatory  or  foundational  vocational  knowl- 
edge and  experience  is  the  result  of  the  changes  that  have 
been  brought  about  in  the  industrial  and  commercial  world 
by  the  modern  factory  system  and  the  absorption  of  small 
business  concerns  by  large  ones.  Through  observing  his 
father  at  work  at  home  or  in  the  little  shop,  and  through 
helping  with  the  work  himself,  the  boy  formerly  gained 
much  knowledge  which  served  as  a  basis  for  his  industrial 
apprenticeship.  Now,  when  the  child  seldom  has  the  oppor- 
tunity to  become  familiar  with  his  father's  trade  by  observ- 
ing his  father  at  the  daily  occupation,  he  cannot  gain  this 
vocational  knowledge  by  actual  contact  and  experience. 
Since  modem  conditions  prevent  his  getting  this  knowledge, 
this  preparatory  basis,  it  is  evident  that  it  must  be  provided 
by  the  school,  the  supplementary  institution,  to  which  has 
been  given  all  the  problems  in  the  education  of  the  young 
which  have  outgrown  the  home  and  other  social  institutions. 

At  first  glance  it  would  seem  that  the  academic  prepara- 


234  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

tion  needed  by  the  child  for  his  place  in  life  as  a  producer 
and  a  member  of  society  need  present  no  difficulties  to  the 
school;  but  in  actual  experience  this  is  perhaps  the  more 
difficult  of  the  two  phases  of  this  preparatory  work  for  the 
masses.  It  is  made  so  for  the  reason  that  the  great  majority 
of  the  children  do  not  remain  in  school  long  enough  to 
acquire  this  academic  basis.  These  children,  and  in  general 
their  parents,  do  not  understand  that  their  low  level  of 
school  or  academic  attainment  will  be  the  level  of  their  voca- 
tional and  social  life  as  well.  They  are  ignorant  of  the 
fact  that  the  tendency  is  more  and  more  to  stratify  persons 
on  the  basis  of  their  academic  attainment  and  the  accom- 
panying vocational  level.  As  a  result  they  leave  school  and 
enter  the  vocational  strata  that  receives  those  having  little 
academic  and  no  vocational  preparation  for  life.  The  fact 
that  more  than  half  of  the  children  in  the  school  do  thus 
drop  out  before  they  reach  the  eighth  grade  and  without  the 
preparation  for  life  which  the  school  should  give,  reveals 
the  urgency  of  convincing  them  of  the  value  of  the  school 
to  them,  so  that  they  will  be  eager  to  remain  longer  in  order 
to  avail  themselves  of  its  advantages.  Professor  Harvey, 
of  Menominie,  Wisconsin,  says:  — 

The  whole  theory  upon  which  our  educational  system  has  been 
developed  is  an  argument  for  pupils  remaining  in  school  beyond 
the  age  of  fourteen,  and  that  argument  is  reinforced  by  every  con- 
sideration of  the  unproductive  character  of  the  work  open  to  the 
fourteen-year-old  child  as  regards  his  best  development  and  future 
usefulness. 

Vocations  classified  according  to  preparation  required. 
A  more  definite  or  a  clearer  conception  of  the  relation  of 
the  vocational  and  the  life  level  to  the  academic  prepara- 
tion may  be  obtained  by  classifying  the  vocations  and  occu- 
pations according  to  the  academic  attainments  of  the  person 
employed  in  them.   A  careful  examination  of  the  classifica- 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 


235 


tion  upon  this  basis  that  follows  will  show  the  unproductive- 
ness and  the  consequent  undesirability  of  the  employments 
open  to  i)crsons  with  low  academic  attainments  and  lack  of 
vocational  education.  It  will  also  indicate,  at  least  approxi- 
mately, the  vocational  selection  of  persons  with  different 
degrees  of  academic  attainments. 

Vocations  classified  according  to  Academic  Preparation 
required  for  engaging  in  tiiem 


Academic  attainment  not  es- 
sential.   Open  to  untrained 
workers 

Academic  preparation  impor- 
tant.    Vocational  prepara- 
tion necessary 

Vocational  and  advanced  aca- 
demic preparation  necessary 

I 

n 

HI 

Common  day  laborers 

Agriculturalists 

Architects 

Cab-drivers 

Bakers 

Chemists 

Farmhands 

Carpenters 

Civil  engineers 

Helpers  (various) 

Contractors  and  build- 

Clergymen 

Hod-carriers 

ers 

Editors 

Janitors 

Dressmakers 

Educators 

Laundry  workers 

Electricians 

Jurists 

Miners 

Florists 

Artists 

Porters 

Jewelers 

Sculptors 

Servants 

Machinists 

Writers 

Street  workers 

Merchants 

Lawyers 

Teamsters 

Millers 

Physicians 

Sailors 

Masons 

Nurses  (trained) 

Street  venders 

Painters 

Actors 

Operatives 

Engineers  (steam) 

Cash  boys  and  girls 

Plumbers 

Waiters 

Printers 

OflSce  assistants 

Sales-persons 

Messengers 

Bookkeepers 

Stenographers 

Tailors 

Tradesmen  (various) 

Academic  and  vocational  stratification.  From  the  above 
table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  academic  and  vocational  strati- 
fication are  closely  related.  Those  children  who  drop  out  of 
school  from  the  lower  grades  and  consequently  have  little 
academic  and  no  vocational  education  are  greatly  restricted 


236  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

in  their  choice  of  occupations  and  must  accept  employment 
in  such  as  are  open  to  persons  of  their  low  level  of  academic 
attainments.  As  a  result  they  drift  in  and  out  of  those  occu- 
pations or  "jobs  "  that  can  be  filled  by  the  vocationally  un- 
skilled and  unprepared;  and  thus  they  gain  an  uncertain 
livehhood  by  doing  "whatever  they  can  get  to  do."  Such 
persons  are  destined  to  find  their  work  in  the  first  group  or 
similar  non-vocational  occupations,  and  this  will  in  a  large 
measure  determine  their  life  level  as  well. 

Those  who  remain  in  the  elementary  school  longer,  but 
who  drop  out  along  the  way,  or  at  the  end  of  the  grammar 
grades,  and  who  also  have  an  opportunity  to  receive  a  more 
efiicient  vocational  training,  will  probably  choose  their  life- 
work  or  vocation  from  those  hsted  in  the  second  group,  the 
level  of  the  vocation  being  somewhat  dependent  upon  their 
intelligence  and  their  general  education.  Those  persons 
having  higher  academic  attainments  will,  under  normal 
conditions,  select  their  life-work  from  among  the  professions 
and  those  branches  of  business  in  which  academic  attain- 
ment is  a  valuable  asset,  if  not  an  altogether  necessary 
qualification.  It  will  be  understood  that  this  classification 
is  not  absolute.  Sometimes  circumstances  outweigh  other 
considerations  and  hence  results  may  be  other  than  here 
suggested;  but  these  conditions  have  been  found  in  such  a 
large  number  of  cases  as  to  warrant  these  conclusions. 

It  is  therefore  apparent  that,  even  from  the  so-called 
practical  point  of  view,  the  more  of  the  general  and  cultural 
education  a  person  can  obtain  the  better  his  chance  of  be- 
coming an  efficient  member  of  society.  Hence  the  impor- 
tance of  keeping  the  child  in  school  as  long  as  possible  is 
evident.  The  two  phases  of  the  general  education  of  the 
individual,  the  practical  and  the  cultural,  are  so  closely 
related  in  their  ultimate  purpose,  that  to  be  cultural  in  the 
highest  sense  means  also  to  be  practical.  Hence  academic 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  237 

education  to  be  of  the  greatest  value  should  educate  the 
individual  for  society,  not  away  from  society.  Thus  it  may 
be  made  to  contribute  not  only  to  his  cultural  prepara- 
tion but  also  to  his  preparation  for  economic  usefulness  in 
the  complete  development  of  the  whole  man.  During  the 
entire  period  of  childhood  and  until  such  time  as  the  pupil 
is  old  enough  to  begin  his  formal  vocational  training,  he 
should  be  making  this  basal  preparation,  laying  this  founda- 
tion through  the  medium  of  the  various  educational  agen- 
cies, the  most  effective  of  which  is  the  public  school.  This 
furnishes  an  added  reason  why  he  should  remain  in  school 
as  long  as  possible. 

Keeping  children  in  school.  One  of  the  most  important 
questions  before  educators  is  how  to  prevent  pupils  leaving 
school  before  or  as  soon  as  they  have  reached  the  end  of  the 
compulsory  school  period.  Not  only  are  thoughtful  teachers 
trying  to  solve  this  question  for  their  respective  schools, 
but  society  requires  that  it  be  solved  for  the  entire  American 
public-school  system.  This  brings  the  problem  squarely  to 
the  educators  for  solution.  They  must  meet  the  demands 
of  society,  that  these  children  be  kept  in  school  and  pre- 
pared for  social  efficiency.  This  can  be  done  only  by  such 
a  modification  of  the  present  plan  and  course  of  study  as 
will  adapt  it  directly  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils. 

There  is  not  very  much  use  of  talking  about  the  educa- 
tion of  the  masses  if  the  masses  cannot  be  kept  in  school  to 
be  educated.  Compulsory  laws  and  truant  officers  are  all 
very  well  as  assistant  agencies;  but  the  school  must  present 
distinct  attractions  to  pupils  to  make  them  wash  to  remain 
without  being  compelled  by  law  to  do  so.  Its  appeal  of  use- 
fulness must  be  made  so  strong  that  they  will  see  that  it  is 
to  their  advantage  to  continue  in  school  as  long  as  their 
circumstances  will  permit.  If  the  prevocational  head  instruc- 
tion can  be  made  sufficiently  practical  and  can  be  so  com- 


238  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

bined  with  the  prevocational  hand  work  as  to  convince 
pupils  of  its  value  in  advancing  them  along  the  road  to 
vocational  efficiency,  a  large  number  can  be  held  in  school 
until  they  have  reached  a  higher  academic  stratum  and  are 
ready  to  begin  special  vocational  training.  Sufficient  ex- 
periments have  already  been  made  to  show  that  in  those 
schools  where  the  course  of  study  has  been  made  to  relate 
more  directly  to  the  life  of  the  present  and  where  concrete 
prevocational  work  has  been  added,  pupils'  interest  in  school 
has  increased  and  they  have  remained  from  choice  rather 
than  from  fear  of  the  truant  officer.  When  pupils  and  par- 
ents learn  that  the  child  who  continues  in  school  through 
the  eighth  grade  and  into  the  high  school  can  enter  a  higher 
class  of  vocation  and  can  command  a  higher  wage  than  the 
one  who  leaves  school  from  the  lower  grades,  the  authorities 
will  not  have  to  resort  to  force  to  kefep  pupils  in  school. 

Another  consideration,  which  makes  a  strong  appeal  to 
most  pupils  and  to  their  parents,  is  the  increased  wage- 
earning  capacity  of  the  boy  or  girl  who  receives  vocational 
instruction.  The  teacher  can  secure,  from  the  records  kept 
by  various  schools  giving  such  instruction  or  providing  for  it 
in  what  is  known  as  "  half-time  work,"  many  tables  showing 
the  percentage  of  increase  in  wages  of  those  pupils  having 
such  instruction  over  those  who  have  not.  An  example, 
taken  at  random  from  among  many,  is  that  of  a  half-time 
school  at  Beverly,  Massachusetts,  in  which  boys  work  alter- 
nate weeks  in  a  factory,  thus  having  an  average  of  twenty- 
five  weeks  of  school  and  twenty-five  weeks  of  work  during 
the  year.  The  wage-earning  cai)acity  of  the  boys  when  they 
entered  the  factory  was  $6  i)er  week.  The  wages  earned  by 
the  time  they  graduated  into  full  time  in  the  factory  was 
$15.65  per  week.  Such  an  example  as  tliis,  and  numbers  of 
others  which  the  teacher  may  cite,  cannot  fail  to  impress 
I)upil3  who  may  be  planning  to  leave  school  to  go  to  work. 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  239 

With  present  social  and  school  conditions  the  perplexing 
question  is  how  can  the  prevocational  instruction  that  will 
lay  a  foundation  for  vocational  training  be  given  in  the 
average  school  with  the  usual  equipment.  The  large  city- 
systems  can  solve  this  problem  in  their  technical  high 
schools;  and  through  these  many  boys  and  girls  are  receiving 
vocational  preparation  for  life  who  without  this  help  might 
have  left  school  and  drifted  into  "blind-alley"  jobs  with  no 
promise  for  the  future.  The  records  of  the  results  of  these 
experiments  should  be  studied  by  all  who  are  interested  in 
this  problem;  for  in  the  methods  employed  will  be  found 
many  suggestions  for  plans  to  be  adapted  to  local  conditions 
and  worked  out  in  smaller  school  systems.  The  problem  of 
the  small  school  is  a  more  difficult  one,  and  it  can  be  solved 
satisfactorily  only  through  the  cooperation  of  local  indus- 
tries and  business.  In  the  main,  the  vocational  activities  of 
the  community  will  determine  the  nature  of  the  vocational 
instruction  to  be  given,  and  school  conditions  and  resources 
will  govern  the  means  to  be  employed.  All  these  conditions 
must  be  carefully  examined  and  plans  for  the  work  made 
according  to  them. 

In  those  communities  where  it  is  not  possible  to  support 
trade  schools,  the  industries  must  be  persuaded  to  cooperate 
with  the  schools  so  as  to  allow  young  persons  who  enter 
the  trades  and  the  commercial  vocations  that  employ  the 
young  to  attend  school  certain  hours  each  week  or  alternate 
weeks.  By  this  arrangement  boys  and  girls  are  given  the 
opportunity  to  serve  a  kind  of  apprenticeship  while  continu- 
ing the  study  of  those  subjects  that  will  be  of  practical  use 
to  them  in  the  vocation  being  learned.  It  is  most  desirable 
that  boys  and  girls  desiring  to  enter  shops,  stores,  offices, 
and  other  places  of  employment  should  have  some  basal 
knowledge  and  some  experience  in  the  same  or  similar  work 
before  applying  for  positions.  True,  there  are  a  few  vocations 


840  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

which  the  young  can  enter  without  previous  knowledge  and 
experience  and  "  work  their  way  up,"  but  some  foundational 
or  prevocational  preparation  is  a  great  advantage,  if  it  is 
not  actually  essential.  It  is  evident  that  the  school  must 
provide  for  this  basal  preparation,  but  how  this  may  be  done 
is  a  much-discussed  question,  and  the  plans  which  are  being 
tried  are  still  in  the  experimental  stage.  However,  some 
well-defined  plans  have  been  adopted  and  some  results 
obtained  that  warrant  vocational  directors  and  teachers 
in  trying  similar  plans  in  their  own  schools.  Much  prevo- 
cational work  can  be  done  in  many  schools  with  present 
equipment,  or  by  the  addition  of  a  comparatively  small 
amount  of  apparatus  and  material.  In  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  and  in  the  high  school,  where  more  advanced 
work  leading  directly  to  distinct  vocations  is  required,  trade 
schools  must  be  secured  if  possible  or  arrangements  should 
be  made  with  local  industries  or  business  for  part-time 
work. 

A  study  of  railroad  transportation.  As  suggestive  of  pre- 
vocational study  and  exercises  in  the  lower  grades,  a  con- 
crete example  is  taken  from  a  study  of  transportation  in  a 
railroad  center.  Since  the  pupils  in  this  case  were  somewhat 
famiUar  with  cars,  tracks,  and  other  matters  pertaining  to 
transportation  by  rail,  that  method  of  transportation  was 
studied.  As  an  introduction  the  early  history  of  the  city 
and  former  methods  of  travel  were  first  studied,  as  well  as 
the  invention  and  development  of  the  locomotive.  After 
some  discussion  regarding  the  actual  hand  work  that  could 
best  be  carried  on  with  available  material  and  machinery, 
it  was  decided  to  build  a  train  of  freight  cars  in  the  manual 
training  shop.  Visits  were  made  to  car  shops  to  examine 
cars  and  take  exact  measurements  and  to  obtain  other 
definite  knowledge  regarding  the  parts  of  the  cars  and  the 
differences  in  cars  used  for  various  purposes.     A  scale  of 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  9il 

measurement  was  decided  upon  and  the  work  apportioned 
among  the  members  of  the  class,  some  working  upon  the 
floors  and  sides,  some  upon  the  ends  and  top,  others  upon 
the  wheels,  and  so  on.  Finally,  the  cars  were  painted  and 
lettered  and  coupled  together  in  a  train  which  was  given  to 
the  kindergarten,  the  track  for  it  having  been  made  so  that 
it  could  be  put  down  on  the  floor  outside  of  the  kindergarten 
circle.  The  lessons  in  arithmetic,  spelling,  reading,  geog- 
raphy, and  history  were  correlated  with  the  subject  of 
transportation  and  the  movement  of  freight  by  rail. 

A  study  of  textile  work.  Textile  industries  offer  many 
suggestions  for  practical  exercises  and  study  in  those  com- 
munities where  some  sort  of  textile  manufacturing  plant  is 
in  operation.  It  also  offers  opportunities  for  much  correlated 
work  in  the  regular  school  subjects,  in  the  study  of  condi- 
tions in  the  pastoral  age  when  the  raising  of  domestic  ani- 
mals, particularly  sheep,  was  the  principal  occupation  of  the 
people.  The  study  of  different  textiles  with  the  history  of 
the  source  of  the  raw  material,  and  of  the  discovery  and 
invention  of  the  process  of  converting  it  into  cloth,  are  sug- 
gestive of  much  research  and  study  that  will  be  both  profit- 
able and  interesting.  A  study  of  wool  and  the  manufacture 
of  woolen  cloth  may  be  made.  In  this  connection  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  wool,  the  cleaning,  carding,  dyeing,  and  weaving 
may  be  studied  concretely.  Small  hand  looms  may  be  con- 
structed and  rugs  woven.  This  last  will  furnish  opportuni- 
ties for  a  consideration  of  such  questions  as  color-combi- 
nation and  designs.  Excursions  to  local  mills  may  be  made 
to  observe  and  to  study  the  methods  of  making  cloth,  the 
machinery  used,  and  the  distribution  of  work  among  the 
workers.  To  make  these  excursions  more  profitable  distinct 
topics  for  observation  should  be  assigned,  the  pupils  taking 
notes  of  the  points  observed.  The  lessons  in  all  the  subjects 
of  the  ciuriculum  may  be  correlated  with  the  concrete  exer- 


242  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

cises,  and  these  any  resourceful  teacher  can  work  out  to  suit 
the  particular  situation. 

Industries  involving  work  in  wood.  Work  in  wood  fur- 
nishes another  group  of  subjects  having  a  fundamental 
body  of  knowledge  and  experience  which  may  be  acquired 
through  study  and  exercises  with  the  average  manual  train- 
ing equipment.  As  a  preparation  for  the  concrete  work, 
a  study  of  trees  should  be  made.  Their  distinctive  char- 
acteristics, the  kind  of  lumber  they  produce,  the  methods  of 
cutting  and  transporting  to  mills,  and  other  related  infor- 
mation may  be  presented  through  properly  planned  lessons. 
Visits  should  be  made  when  possible  to  the  woods,  sawmills, 
planing-mills,  lumber  yards,  and  other  places  where  the  actual 
process  of  changing  the  trees  of  the  forest  into  lumber  may 
be  seen  and  where  other  departments  of  the  lumber  business 
may  be  learned.  Pictures  will  be  found  useful  in  showing  the 
processes  which  the  pupils  cannot  actually  see.  The  reading 
and  investigation  which  should  accompany  this  study  will 
add  greatly  to  the  interest  and  instructiveness  of  this  work. 
Geography  will  be  found  particularly  rich  in  material  for 
correlated  lessons  on  the  forest  products  of  different  coun- 
tries, the  various  uses  to  which  these  are  put,  the  reasons 
for  the  particular  locations  of  factories  for  the  manufacture 
of  certain  kinds  of  wooden  articles,  and  many  other  matters. 
In  making  designs  for  articles  to  be  constructed  in  the  man- 
ual training  shops,  the  knowledge  of  drawing  will  be  found 
useful,  and  in  making  estimates  of  the  amount  of  material 
required,  many  problems  in  arithmetic  will  be  proposed  and 
solved.  The  literature  relating  to  the  forest  will  be  found 
both  practical  and  cultural,  and  many  poems  as  well  as 
prose  articles  should  be  read  in  connection  with  this  study. 
As  in  all  study,  of  practical  as  well  as  of  a  cultural  nature, 
there  are  constant  opportunities  for  exercises  in  composition 
and  the  study  of  English,  and  these  should  not  be  neglected. 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  2.13 

It  is  by  making  use  of  all  the  opportunities  offereil  for  cor- 
related study  that  this  kind  of  prevocational  work  will  be 
made  to  yield  the  rich  results  which  are  possible. 

For  the  actual  constructive  work  an  infinite  number  of 
articles  may  be  made.  With  the  more  advanced  pupils  this 
may  be  continued  to  productive  work,  in  making  furniture, 
constructing  buildings,  and  doing  other  work  either  for  the 
school  or  for  sale.  This  concrete  work  is  so  suggestive  of 
things  to  be  done  and  of  the  means  to  be  employed,  that  it 
is  hardly  necessary  to  give  actual  examples.  Each  school 
group  of  workers  under  the  direction  of  their  teacher  can 
decide  upon  the  industries  to  be  considered  and  studied. 
The  work  in  all  cases  should  be  carried  beyond  the  play 
stage  and  should  consist  in  the  making  of  things  for  prac- 
tical use.  Excursions  should  be  made  to  factories,  to  build- 
ings in  the  process  of  construction,  and  to  all  places  in  the 
vicinity  where  work  in  wood  may  be  studied  concretely. 

Work  in  domestic  arts.  The  domestic  science  department 
wiU  also  afford  opportunities  for  prevocational  work  and 
study  of  real  value.  Either  in  the  line  of  cooking  or  of  sew- 
ing girls  may  lay  the  foundation  for  special  vocations  in 
related  activities.  A  properly  supervised  course  in  sewing 
should  give  those  pupils  taking  it  sufficient  skill  both  in 
hand  work  and  in  the  use  of  the  sewing-machine  to  enable 
them  to  do  any  ordinary  kind  of  sewing  without  assistance. 
They  should  also  gain  such  skill  in  the  designing  and  cutting- 
out  of  garments  as  would  enable  them  to  use  a  simple  pat- 
tern in  cutting  materials  to  advantage.  Besides,  they  should 
acquire  such  knowledge  about  the  qualities  and  uses  of 
various  kinds  of  materials  that  they  would  be  able  to  select 
and  use  them  intelligently.  In  fact,  students  taking  the 
courses  that  are  now  offered  in  sewing  in  a  large  number  of 
our  schools  are  laying  the  foundation  for  the  practice  of  this 
particular  domestic  art  in  their  own  homes  or  in  some  related 


244  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

vocation  such  as  dressmaking,  tailoring,  millinery,  and  the 
many  special  vocations  that  require  skill  in  sewing. 

The  study  of  foods  and  of  cooking,  as  pursued  in  the 
properly  equipped  departments  of  our  public  schools,  also 
affords  an  opportunity  for  prevocational  instruction  of  a 
practical  nature.  The  knowledge  of  household  chemistry, 
of  food  combinations,  of  balanced  meals,  and  of  all  matters 
relating  to  the  selection,  cooking,  and  serving  of  food  can 
be  directly  applied  by  those  girls  whose  vocation  will  be 
home-making,  and  it  furnishes  the  foundational  knowledge 
and  experience  for  those  who  wish  to  become  teachers  of  the 
domestic  arts  or  to  engage  in  one  of  the  vocations  for  which 
such  knowledge  is  required.  In  communities  where  there 
are  bakeries  and  confectionery  establishments  that  employ 
child  labor,  this  knowledge  would  be  of  particular  vocational 
value  as  a  preparation  for  half-time  work. 

The  suggested  subject-matter  to  be  used  in  connection 
with  this  branch  of  the  course  in  domestic  arts  will  include 
primarily  biology,  chemistry,  hygiene,  and  geography.  The 
question  of  the  sources  of  foodstuffs  and  methods  of  produc- 
tion will  give  opportunity  for  a  study  of  conditions  in  vari- 
ous countries  as  they  affect  the  food-supply,  methods  of 
production,  markets,  and  other  related  matters.  As  with 
all  concrete  work  the  lessons  of  the  course  of  study  in  Eng- 
lish, in  geography,  in  nature-study,  in  arithmetic,  and  in 
science  should  be  made  to  correlate  with  the  work  in  the 
domestic  arts. 

Value  of  training  in  domestic  arts.  The  aim  of  this  dis- 
tinctly feminine  training  for  girls  is  twofold.  First,  it  is 
intended  to  give  them  such  a  foundation  in  the  preparation 
for  taking  up  the  duties  of  home-makers  that  they  will  be 
able  to  undertake  this  most  sacred  of  missions  with  intelli- 
gence and  with  an  understanding  of  its  responsibilities.  It 
is  by  thus  training  the  future  home-makers  that  the  nation 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  945 

will  succeed  in  perpetuating  the  best  type  of  the  American 
home  with  its  high  ideals  of  health,  intelligence,  and  morals. 
In  the  second  place,  this  instruction  will  lay  the  foundation 
for  and  give  help  in  making  a  preparation  in  the  distinctly 
feminine  vocations  which  a  great  many  girls  desire  to  enter. 
With  the  changing  conditions  and  the  removal  from  the  home 
of  the  many  manual  occupations  which  formerly  engaged  the 
girls  of  a  family,  the  necessity  for  girls  going  outside  their 
homes  to  earn  the  money  to  buy  the  articles  for  everyday 
use  which  were  formerly  made  in  the  home  is  constantly 
increasing.  If  they  are  not  trained  for  the  occupations  suited 
to  them,  they  will,  like  their  untrained  brothers,  drift  into 
the  chance  jobs  which  they  find.  The  ready  response  of 
girls  to  the  efforts  being  made  to  give  them  vocational 
training  in  the  trade  schools,  high  schools  of  practical  arts, 
and  other  similar  institutions,  shows  the  great  need  of  voca- 
tional preparation  for  girls  as  well  as  for  boys. 

Prevocational  work  in  various  industries.  Prevocational 
study  and  work  in  many  other  departments  of  the  indus- 
tries at  comparatively  little  cost  could  be  suggested  for 
the  public  school.  Such  vocations  as  printing,  bookbind- 
ing, plumbing,  painting  and  paperhanging,  plastering,  and 
foundry  trades  are  all  suggestive  for  similar  concrete  work 
in  the  public  schools,  and  plans  for  developing  these  could 
be  worked  out  to  suit  local  conditions.  The  community 
activities  and  vocational  interests  always  determine  to  a 
large  extent  the  particular  kinds  of  industries  and  depart- 
ments of  business  to  be  studied.  The  special  departments 
for  which  pupils  desire  to  fit  themselves  should  suggest  the 
specific  line  of  preparation  to  be  made.  Local  industries 
together  with  the  general  community  vocations  are  impor- 
tant factors  in  shaping  the  vocational  life  of  the  young,  and 
therefore  these  should  be  intensively  studied. 

Readjustment  of  course  of  study.  Perhaps  the  most  diffi- 


246  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

cult  phase  of  the  readjustment  of  the  school  plan  to  meet 
present-day  needs  lies  in  what  might  be  treated  as  the  voca- 
tionalizing  of  the  course  of  study  —  the  selection,  presenta- 
tion, and  teaching  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  curriculum 
so  that  it  will  be  distinctly  vocational  in  its  apphcation. 
This  does  not  imply  that  everything  learned  should  have  a 
direct  bearing  upon  the  business  of  earning  one's  living; 
but  it  does  mean  that  the  study  of  these  subjects  should  be 
made  so  practical  and  so  closely  related  to  the  needs  of  every- 
day life  that  the  child  will  see  their  relation  to  his  needs 
instead  of  considering  them  as  something  apart  and  remote. 
He  will  then  be  interested  in  these  subjects  and  will  learn 
his  lessons  from  choice  rather  than  from  necessity;  for  in- 
stead of  being  composed  of  dead,  meaningless  matter,  the 
studies  of  the  curriculum  mil  be  vitaUzed  with  that  which 
is  of  present  meaning  and  interest. 

An  examination  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  usual  course 
of  study  in  our  public  schools  will  reveal  the  fact  that  it  has 
many  vocational  bearings  which  can  be  utilized  for  the  pur- 
pose of  general  and  specific  instruction.  This  is  valuable  for 
all  children  and  not  merely  for  those  who  will  find  their 
vocational  life  in  the  particular  industries  to  which  the 
vocationalized  subject-matter  relates.  There  should  be  a 
more  general  knowledge  of  the  industries  and  of  industrial 
life,  of  commerce  and  of  the  commercial  interests  and  life 
of  the  locality,  of  the  professions,  and  of  their  characteristics 
and  the  requisites  for  entering  them.  Such  knowledge  is  of 
far  more  general  value  than  the  list  of  battles  fought  by 
Csesar  and  Napoleon,  or  the  names  and  dates  of  the  kings 
of  England  and  France.  A  knowledge  of  the  influence  of 
the  development  of  vocational  life  upon  the  history  of  a 
nation  and  upon  civilization  is  of  more  practical,  everyday 
use  than  a  knowledge  of  a  dead  language  or  of  higher  mathe- 
matics.   The    discovery  and  development  of  the    latent 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  347 

ability  of  the  child  so  that  he  can  make  the  most  of  the 
powers  which  nature  has  given  him  is  of  far  more  importance 
than  the  maintenance  of  old  traditions  regarding  the  func- 
tion of  the  school  and  the  schoolmaster.  The  stability  of 
society  through  the  preparation  of  its  future  citizens  to  be 
self-supporting  and  efficient  is  of  far  more  moment  to  the 
nation  than  the  perpetuation  of  certain  time-honored  sub- 
jects of  study,  provided  these  could  be  forced  upon  the  great 
mass  of  pupils  for  whom  the  effort  to  train  vocationally  is 
now  being  made. 

Besides,  the  new  order  does  not  deprive  of  cultural  in- 
struction those  who  wish  it  or  who  will  remain  in  school  to 
obtain  it.  The  introduction  of  vocational  education  and  the 
vocationalizing  of  the  subject-matter  are  for  the  benefit  of 
that  large  class  of  pupils  who  leave  school  because  they 
cannot  see  its  relation  to  actual  life  and  hence  would  not 
remain  long  enough  to  acquire  the  cultural  education.  By 
making  the  course  of  study  fit  their  needs,  they  will  continue 
in  school  longer,  and  thus  they  will  not  only  lay  the  founda- 
tion for  vocational  efficiency,  but  they  will  acquire  more  of 
the  subject-matter  of  the  curriculum  than  is  possible  imder 
the  old  order  which  is  now  fast  passing  away.  The  school 
has  always  been  vocational  in  its  tendency  and  the  course 
of  study  has  been  vocationalized,  but  it  has  been  for  the 
professions  alone,  for  that  small  class  who  will  go  to  college 
and  to  the  professional  schools.  The  new  plan  will  not  inter- 
fere with  the  preparation  of  those  who  desire  to  go  into  the 
professions  or  the  higher  branches  of  business,  for  they  will 
still  find  in  the  school  the  opportunity  for  even  a  broader 
preparation.  At  the  same  time  the  large  class  of  pupils, 
which  the  school  has  until  recently  neglected,  will  also 
find  in  the  school  the  opportunities  for  the  preparation  for 
the  careers  which  they  will  choose. 


248  THE  PROFESSION. OF  TEACHING 


SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Vocational  Education,  Gray. 

Youth,  School  and  Vocation,  Bloomfield. 

Report  of  the  Commission  on  National  Aid  to  Vocational  Education.  Bu- 
reau of  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 

The  Problem  of  Vocational  Education,  Snedden. 

School  and  Shop,  Condon.    A^.  E.  A.  Report  of  19H,  p.  171. 

Examples  of  Industrial  Education,  Leavitt. 

Vocational  Education,  N.E.A.  Report  of  1915,  pp.  292-331. 

Industrial  Education,  Harvey,  p.  69. 

Annals  of  Educational  Progress,  Garber,  chap.  i. 

Elementary  Industrial  School,  Cleveland.  Bureau  of  Education,  Washing- 
ton, D.C. 

Trade  School  for  Girls,  Worcester,  Massachusetts.  Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington,  D.C. 

Bibliography  of  Indtistrial,  Vocational,  and  Trade  Education  (for  Bulletins, 
magazine  articles,  etc.).  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 


EXERCISES 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  terms  "vocation,"  "situation," 
"job"? 

^.  Name  some  of  the  vocations  for  which  the  following  branches  of  study 
would  help  a  person  to  prepare :  geography,  botany,  physiology,  arith- 
metic, Latin,  chemistry,  drawing? 

3.  Should  schoob  give  or  provide  boys  and  girls  with  their  vocational 
training?  Discuss  the  difiScuIties  in  the  way  of  their  doing  so,  and 
consider  some  means  of  overcoming  them. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  boys'  and  men's  vocations  in  your  home  community. 
Which  of  them  require  the  most  time  for  preparation?  Which  yield 
the  largest  incomes?  Which  are  least  desirable? 

^.  Make  a  list  of  vocations  in  which  girls  and  women  of  your  community 
work.  Which  are  most  desirable,  least  desirable,  and  give  some  rea- 
sons for  your  classification? 

6.  How  did  men  prepare  for  adult  vocational  life  before  the  year  1800? 
Find  out  all  you  can  about  industrial  conditions  before  that  date. 
Name  some  causes  and  conditions  that  have  made  changes  possible 
and  consider  whether  the  invention  of  modern  machinery  has  been 
an  advantage  to  the  working-man. 

7.  Name  some  advantages  that  country  life  has  over  city  life,  some  ad- 
vantages that  city  life  has  over  country  life,  and  tell  what  considera- 
tions should  determine  one's  choice  between  them. 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  249 

8.  Discuss  the  advantages  of  the  apprentice  system  and  consider  whether 
it  is  possible  to  secure  these  advantages  in  the  modern  system  of  labor. 
What  plan  approaches  it  most  nearly? 

9.  Explain  the  ways  in  which  a  vocational  counselor  may  help  the  young 
in  choosing  a  career. 

10.  Name  your  own  choice  of  a  vocation.  What  subjects  learned  in  school 
would  help  you  most  in  preparing  for  it? 

11.  Discuss  at  length  one  of  the  following  topics:  — 

The  practical  advantages  of  a  course  in  domestic  arts. 
The  value  of  the  manual  training'  course  to  a  boy  who  will  become 
a  lawyer. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE 

Conditions  necessary  for  a  well-balanced  life.  It  has  been 
said  by  a  well-known  educator  that  for  a  man  to  be  reason- 
ably assured  of  a  well-balanced  life  and  a  fair  degree  of 
success  from  properly  directed  effort,  three  conditions  must 
be  met.  He  must  be  able  to  eat  and  sleep  well,  he  must 
have  a  respectable  vocation,  and  he  must  have  a  hobby. 
This  simply  means  that  he  must  be  sound  in  body  and  mind, 
so  that  he  may  do  his  chosen  work  well;  that  he  must  have  an 
occupation  of  an  approved  character;  and  he  must  have 
some  commanding  interest  outside  of  those  relating  to  his 
vocation  or  business.  Just  what  this  hobby  or  interest  may 
be  will  naturally  depend  upon  the  inclination  and  the  taste 
of  the  individual.  Because  of  this  it  will  be  selected  from 
choice  rather  than  by  accident,  as  his  vocation  or  means 
of  gaining  a  livelihood  may  have  been,  and  for  this  reason 
he  will  find  in  the  exercise  of  it  one  of  his  chief  joys.  The 
same  conditions  should  exist  in  the  practice  of  his  vocation; 
but,  as  in  many  cases,  it  has  not  been  selected  from  choice, 
he  labors  at  it  from  necessity  rather  than  because  of  any 
love  he  has  for  it.  It  is  to  correct  this  condition,  and  to  help 
the  young  in  the  selection  of  vocations  that  will  suit  their 
natural  aptitudes,  that  instruction  in  vocational  guidance 
is  now  being  given  in  many  of  our  schools. 

Right  choice  of  a  vocation  important.  The  selection  of  a 
vocation  is  a  very  important  matter  and  should  be  made 
with  the  greatest  care.  To  make  this  choice  intelligently,  a 
|)crson  must  have  definite  information  regarding  the  char- 
acter of  the  various  available  vocations.  When  the  knowl- 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  251 

edge  necessary  for  making  an  intelligent  choice  is  lacking, 
the  selection  is  likely  to  be  more  or  less  of  a  guess,  rather 
than  a  choice,  and  often  is  a  mere  matter  of  accident  of  cir- 
cumstances. This  guess  or  accidental  choice  is  more  often 
than  not  an  unwise  or  an  altogether  wrong  one  for  the  person 
making  it.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the  majority  of  men 
have  fallen  into  their  occupations  by  accident,  rather  than 
from  deliberate  choice  based  upon  knowledge  and  preference. 
This  fact  in  a  large  measure  accounts  for  the  great  number 
of  failures  in  all  vocations  and  among  all  classes  and  all 
conditions  of  men.  It  is  a  self-evident  fact  that  every  man 
should  choose  his  life-work  or  his  vocation,  and  that  he 
should  make  his  choice  with  the  utmost  care.  Moreover,  it  is 
important  that  the  choice  should  be  made  as  early  in  life 
as  possible,  in  order  that  one's  study  and  preparation  for  life 
may  be  made  with  direct  reference  to  the  chosen  vocation. 
Since  a  person  must  possess  certain  definite  knowledge  in 
order  to  choose  his  vocation  wisely,  the  home  or  society 
must  provide  him  with  the  means  for  obtaining  this  knowl- 
edge. At  the  present  time  few  homes  can  furnish  the  means 
for  gaining  the  necessary  information  regarding  the  voca- 
tions, and  it  falls  to  the  school,  as  the  agent  of  society,  to 
provide  instruction  in  this  subject.  Some  educators  would 
go  even  farther  and  require  the  schools  to  provide  instruc- 
tion and  training  necessary  for  engaging  in  the  vocations. 
The  purpose  here  is  to  present  the  general  question  of  choos- 
ing a  vocation  and  to  give  teachers  some  suggestions  for 
helping  the  young  in  making  wise  and  proper  selection  of  a 
life-work.  The  reason  for  adding  this  instruction  to  the 
already  crowded  curriculum  of  the  school  is  apparent.  Since 
the  purpose  of  education,  broadly  stated,  is  to  fit  the  indi- 
vidual for  his  future  place  in  society,  it  is  evident  that  tliis 
education  must  include  that  practical  preparation  which  will 
make  him  most  useful  and  most  productive  to  society.    In 


252  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

these  days  of  highly  specialized  labor  and  keen  competition, 
it  is  necessary  that  a  man  choose  the  particular  vocation 
through  which  he  may  make  the  most  of  himself  and  of  his 
powers,  if  he  would  become  socially  efficient. 

The  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  great  majority  of  persons  is 
that  the  most  important  part  of  the  training  of  a  boy  is  that 
which  will  prepare  him  for  his  economic  relation  to  society 
or  will  fit  him  to  provide  properly  for  himself  and  those 
dependent  upon  him.  Therefore,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
these  persons  should  consider  as  impractical  any  education 
which  does  not  prepare  him  for  this.  Because  of  this  fact  it 
is  necessary  to  consider  the  problem  of  vocational  instruction 
in  any  discussion  of  the  function  of  the  school  and  the  work 
of  the  professional  teacher.  Indeed,  in  these  latter  days 
when  addresses  and  discussions  upon  the  various  phases  of 
vocational  instruction  have  a  prominent  place  in  the  pro- 
grams of  educational  gatherings,  any  work  upon  the  subject 
of  education  in  the  schools  would  be  incomplete  if  it  did  not 
include  this  important  subject.  A  brief  discussion  of  voca- 
tional guidance  and  prevocational  instruction  and  some 
suggestions  for  teaching  them  are  therefore  given  a  place 
in  this  work  on  the  relation  of  the  school  and  the  teacher 
to  the  problem  of  the  education  of  the  young. 

Classification  of  vocations.  In  any  discussion  of  vocations 
it  is  necessary  for  convenience  in  referring  to  them  and  for 
a  clear  presentation  of  the  subject  to  make  some  practi- 
cal classification.  Vocations  might  be  classified  in  various 
ways,  and  different  considerations  might  be  made  the  ba- 
sis of  classification;  but  for  convenience  and  to  serve  as  a 
means  of  illustration,  a  general  division  into  two  classes  is 
here  made.  In  the  one  class  are  grouped  the  vocations 
which  call  for  creative  activity  on  the  part  of  those  persons 
engaged  in  them,  and  in  the  other  those  occupations  which 
do  not  call  for  such  creative  activity,  but  merely  for  the 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  263 

mechanical  repetition  of  certain  processes.  As  at  present 
organized,  some  occupations  demand  creative  activity,  both 
in  the  matter  of  conceiving  and  planning  and  in  that  of 
executing.  Many  vocations  admit  of  scarcely  any  variation 
or  selection  in  the  performance  of  the  work,  but  are  a  con- 
tinuous repetition  of  some  particular  act  or  kind  of  labor 
over  and  over  again,  day  after  day,  and  month  after  month. 
The  former  may  be  termed  "creative"  vocations  and  the 
latter  "non-creative"  vocations.  The  one  gives  an  oppor- 
tunity for  self-expression  in  the  exercise  of  originality  and 
intelligence  which  gives  interest  and  pleasure  in  the  work. 
The  other  gives  no  such  opportunity,  but  is  mechanical  and 
joyless  and  often  amounts  to  actual  drudgery  to  those  who 
are  condemned  to  work  at  it. 

Ex-President  Eliot  of  Harvard  says  that  "the  greatest 
need  in  America  to-day  is  not  less  work  but  more  joy  in 
work."  This  statement  is  more  significant  than  may  at  first 
appear,  and  its  application  may  be  traced  in  all  departments 
of  labor.  For  this  reason  a  young  man,  when  selecting  a 
life-work,  should  choose  a  vocation  that  will  offer  him  an 
opportunity  to  think,  to  reason,  to  create,  to  adapt,  to 
modify,  and  to  achieve.  Such  a  vocation  will  stimulate 
effort  and  at  the  same  time  will  give  joy  in  the  execution. 
This  consideration  makes  it  clear  that  this  classification  of 
vocations  offers  a  basis  for  choice  that  is  vital.  The  impor- 
tance of  choosing  a  creative  vocation  cannot  be  too  emphat- 
ically stated.  All  who  wish  to  make  a  success  of  their  lives, 
and  experience  joy  and  satisfaction  instead  of  discontent 
and  unhappiness  in  their  work,  should  carefully  and  intelli- 
gently select,  from  among  the  many  vocations  offered,  one 
that  is  reputable  and  creative  and  at  the  same  time  gives 
promise  of  satisfaction  in  the  practice  of  it.  It  is  the  more 
necessary  that  the  young  make  such  a  choice  as  early  as 
possible,  for,  if  they  do  not,  they  will  probably  drift  into 


254  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACmNG 

and  become  bound  for  life  to  some  occupation  which  neither 
elevates  nor  stimulates,  and  hence  yields  more  of  discontent 
and  drudgery  than  of  satisfaction  and  pleasure. 

Classification  based  upon  the  kind  of  material  handled. 
In  addition  to  the  classification  of  the  vocations  based  upon 
the  general  character  of  the  effort  which  they  require, 
there  is  still  another  kind  of  classification  based  upon  the 
nature  of  the  work  itself  and  the  material  upon  which  effort 
is  expended.  In  the  first  chapter  of  this  book  it  was  shown 
that  man's  labor  may  be  broadly  divided  into  classes 
according  to  the  material  handled  and  the  kind  of  work 
done.  The  division  of  the  vocations  that  was  made  there 
was  concerned  primarily  with  the  distinction  of  the  pro- 
fessions from  other  vocations  and  therefore  only  a  broad 
classification  was  made.  According  to  it,  all  occupations  not 
belonging  to  the  professional  and  the  commercial  vocations 
were  grouped  under  one  general  class  as  industrial.  For 
convenience  in  the  present  discussion,  this  last  class  may 
again  be  subdivided  into  agricultural  pursuits,  the  manu- 
facturing and  mechanical  pursuits,  and  those  pursuits  which 
have  to  do  with  various  kinds  of  domestic  service  and  may 
be  termed  "household  occupations."  Each  of  these  classes 
embraces  a  wide  range  of  occupations  with  special  groupings 
and  names,  but  it  is  necessary  in  this  connection  only  to 
make  this  general  classification.  The  professional  callings 
are  the  most  distinctly  defined  because  of  the  character  of 
the  preparation  required  for  engaging  in  them  and  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  they  are  based.  The  class  embraced  in 
the  manufacturing  and  mechanical  pursuits,  and  usually 
termed  "the  industries,"  presents  the  most  varied  and 
complex  groups  of  occupations.  It  embraces  all  regular 
manufacturing  pursuits,  crafts,  trades,  and  in  a  general 
way  various  kinds  of  labor  not  otherwise  classified. 

Importance  of  fitness  for  a  vocation.   The  selection  of  a 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDiVNCE  255 

suitable  vocation  or  life-work  is  a  matter  of  such  grave 
importance  that  it  should  receive  more  careful  attention 
than  is  given  to  it  by  the  young  or  even  by  their  parents  in 
many  cases.  Unfortunately,  the  young  person  who  must 
make  a  choice  of  a  vocation  does  not  have  the  knowledge  to 
enable  him  to  make  a  wise  selection,  and  for  this  reason  he 
must  have  the  help  and  guidance  of  persons  of  wider  experi- 
ence than  himself.  As  has  already  been  said,  he  cannot  as  a 
rule  secure  this  help  in  his  home;  and  right  here  arises  the 
necessity  of  the  school  taking  over  the  task.  The  teacher 
more  than  any  other  person  should  be  in  a  position  to  aid 
the  pupil  in  determining  his  natural  bent  or  fitness  for  a 
given  vocation,  or  in  helping  him  to  decide  which  of  the 
many  vocations  he  prefers  and  can  best  prepare  himself  to 
enter.  ^Vhen  one  considers  the  great  need  of  this  kind  of 
help  for  the  young,  one  cannot  but  be  surprised,  not  that 
the  schools  have  added  this  work  to  their  already  crowded 
curricula,  but  that  they  did  not  long  ago  eliminate  some  of 
the  dead  wood  from  the  subject-matter  and  put  in  its  place 
practical  live  matter  for  vocational  guidance. 

The  question  which  the  schools  are  now  asking  is,  What 
methods  should  be  employed  for  providing  practical  assist- 
ance to  its  pupils  in  the  settlement  of  this  perplexing  ques- 
tion of  choosing  a  vocation.?  The  reports  of  the  efforts  along 
this  hne  now  being  made  in  the  city  systems  of  Boston, 
New  York,  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  and  many  others  can  be 
secured  and  read  by  all  who  wish  to  make  a  study  of  the 
various  methods  that  are  being  tried  out  in  these  great 
school  systems.  The  details  of  these  experiments  are  most 
instructive,  and  those  who  can  do  so  would  do  well  to 
adapt  to  their  local  needs  and  conditions  many  of  the 
methods  employed.  The  brief  compass  of  a  chapter  will  not 
p)ermit  of  an  exhaustive  discussion  of  vocational  selection 
nor  of  giving  complete  directions  regarding  the  subject- 


856  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

matter  and  methods  to  be  employed  in  its  use.  The  purpose 
is  rather  to  impress  upon  the  teachers  in  the  small  school 
the  importance  of  this  subject  of  vocational  guidance  and 
their  relation  to  it  and  to  offer  a  few  practical  suggestions 
regarding  the  manner  in  which  the  problem  may  be  ap- 
proached. Even  the  teacher  in  the  school  which  has  not 
regular  courses  in  vocational  instruction  can,  by  a  judicious 
use  of  the  opportunities  which  the  classroom  offers,  give 
valuable  assistance  in  directing  the  thought  of  his  pupils 
to  the  selection  of  desirable  occupations  and  in  giving  the 
instruction  necessary  for  making  wise  selections. 

School  should  provide  instruction  for  all.  The  criticism  is 
constantly  heard  that  the  schools  confine  themselves  too 
closely  to  preparing  for  the  professions  and  do  not  give 
sufficient  consideration  to  the  fact  that  the  great  majority 
of  pupils  will  not  enter  the  professions,  but  will  find  them- 
selves vocationally  in  some  of  the  many  industries  or  in  the 
commercial  occupations.  The  instruction,  therefore,  which 
they  receive  along  with  those  pupils  who  will  enter  college 
and  prepare  for  the  professions  is  not  considered  of  real 
practical  use  to  them.  Since  fully  ninety  per  cent  of  the 
children  who  enter  school  eventually  enter  the  industries 
and  only  ten  p)er  cent  enter  the  professions,  it  is  coming  to 
be  the  general  belief  that  the  schools  should  provide  pri- 
marily for  the  ninety  per  cent  and  not  merely  for  the  ten 
per  cent.  A  school  training  that  is  principally  concerned 
with  the  preparation  for  the  professions  must  of  necessity 
turn  the  great  majority  of  its  pupils  out  into  the  world  with- 
out that  practical  preparation  for  life's  duties  which  the 
social  conditions  of  the  present  day  require  them  to  have. 
There  is,  as  a  result,  a  gap  between  the  school  and  vocational 
placement.  Such  conditions  should  not  exist.  The  boy  just 
out  of  school  should  not  be  looking  about  in  an  aimless  way, 
trying  to  find  a  job,  without  preparation  or  recognized  apti- 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  257 

tude  for  any  vocation  in  particular.  When  he  leaves  school 
he  should  have  an  idea  as  to  what  vocation  he  wishes  to 
enter  and  have  some  real  basic  preparation  for  it.  It  is  to 
bridge  over  this  gap  between  school  and  the  vocations  and 
to  connect  the  schools  directly  with  life,  with  the  work-a-day 
world  of  to-day,  that  instruction  and  work  in  vocational 
guidance  are  now  being  given.  To  any  intelligent  person 
who  will  give  the  matter  due  consideration  there  can  be  Ut- 
tle  question  of  the  value  of  such  instruction,  but  just  what 
is  the  proper  and  best  means  to  be  employed  for  giving  it 
is  a  difficult  matter  to  decide.  In  the  solution  of  this  prob- 
lem local  conditions  and  the  means  for  giving  this  instruc- 
tion and  help  must  determine  in  a  large  measure  how  the 
work  shall  be  done. 

Desirable  characteristics  of  a  vocation.  From  the  fore- 
going discussion  regarding  the  choice  of  a  vocation  it  is 
apparent  that  a  vocation,  to  be  satisfactory  from  all  points 
of  view,  should  be  reputable  and  creative  and  it  should  be 
one  for  which  the  p)erson  choosing  it  has  some  natural  apti- 
tude or  fitness.  An  intelligent  person  need  have  little  diffi- 
culty in  choosing  a  vocation  that  is  reputable  and  creative, 
but  he  may  find  it  more  difficult  to  determine  for  what  par- 
ticular kind  of  work  nature  has  best  fitted  him.  He  may 
arrive  at  his  decision,  either  by  direct  choice  or  by  a  process 
of  elimination  or  rejection.  Often  a  person's  natural  pref- 
erence for  a  particular  kind  of  occupation  will  be  a  safe 
guide,  but  in  the  greater  number  of  cases  he  is  so  uncertain 
about  the  matter  that  he  cannot  make  a  direct  choice,  and 
he  must  reach  a  decision  by  considering  and  rejecting  dif- 
ferent vocations  until  he  finds  the  one  which  best  suits  his 
ideas,  his  ambitions,  and  his  opportunities.  In  making  a 
choice  by  this  second  method,  a  person  will  first  consider 
the  general  department  or  branch  of  vocational  activity 
which  he  will  enter,  whether  it  will  be  professional,  com- 


258  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

mercial,  or  industrial.  After  having  selected  the  field  of 
activity  that  best  suits  his  purpose,  he  may,  either  by  direct 
selection  or  by  rejection,  discover  the  particular  department 
of  it  he  desires  to  enter. 

Methods  of  choosing  a  vocation.  An  example  may  make 
this  method  of  reaching  a  decision  more  clear.  The  young 
person  making  his  choice  of  a  life-work  may  prefer  some 
phase  of  industrial  work.  In  this  case  he  may  select,  from 
among  the  many  kinds  of  productive  effort  or  from  the  many 
branches  of  the  manufacturing  industry,  the  particular  one 
which  best  suits  his  taste  and  his  opportunities  for  prepara- 
tion. If  his  own  inclination  and  aptitude  for  a  particular 
kind  of  occupation  are  not  sufficiently  pronounced,  or  if  he 
has  not  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  various  departments  of 
industry  that  are  open  to  him  to  make  a  selection,  he  may 
investigate  them  in  turn,  eliminating  one  after  another 
until  he  discovers  the  one  which  his  own  natural  qualifica- 
tions and  his  circumstances  make  most  desirable.  It  may 
be  that  the  young  person  choosing  his  life-work  may  wish 
to  enter  one  of  the  professions.  If  he  has  no  guiding  predilec- 
tion for  a  particular  one  to  enable  him  to  make  his  choice, 
he  may,  by  a  process  of  elimination,  after  careful  investiga- 
tion of  the  conditions  governing  each,  be  able  to  decide  upon 
the  one  which  best  suits  him.  In  each  case  he  should  make 
a  thorough  investigation  and  study  of  the  requirements  of 
the  various  occupations  under  consideration.  The  impor- 
tance of  a  careful  selection  of  a  vocation  is  the  more  apparent 
when  one  considers  that  the  choice  which  a  person  makes 
of  a  career  or  a  life-work  will  in  a  large  measure  determine 
his  success  and  happiness  or  his  failure  and  disappointment. 

Suggestions  for  instruction  in  vocational  guidance.  In 
order  that  the  boys  and  girls  who  are  trying  to  solve  the 
problem  of  choosing  a  desirable  vocation  may  make  the 
careful  analysis  and  selection  discussed  above,  they  must 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  259 

receive  instruction  and  guidance  from  those  who  have  made 
a  critical  study  of  the  problem  and  its  difficulties.  To  this 
end  there  should  be  in  all  school  systems  carefully  directed 
and  supervised  instruction  and  individual  counsel  in  voca- 
tional guidance.  Each  teacher  cannot,  along  with  all  the 
other  things  he  must  learn,  become  an  expert  in  vocational 
guidance.  He  can,  however,  under  the  direction  of  a  super- 
visor or  director  of  vocational  guidance  carry  out  his  par- 
ticular part  of  the  program  in  giving  proper  instruction  and 
help,  just  as  the  various  teachers  in  a  school  system  work 
under  supervisors  of  music,  drawing,  and  other  so-called 
special  subjects  in  carrying  out  the  programs  in  these  sub- 
jects. True,  the  individual  teacher  must  know  how  to  select 
and  use  the  subject-matter  of  the  course  of  study  so  that 
the  pupil  may  gain  the  kind  of  information  and  experience 
that  will  helj)  him  to  understand  and  make  use  of  the 
definite  instruction  and  help  in  vocational  guidance. 

In  these  early  days  of  experimentation  in  vocational 
education  in  our  schools,  teachers  in  the  majority  of  cases 
find  themselves  without  the  necessary  knowledge  and  under- 
standing of  methods  to  be  employed,  and  as  a  result  they 
are  somewhat  dismayed  at  the  prospect  of  being  expected 
to  give  assistance  in  this  matter.  The  same  condition  has 
existed  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  all  beginnings  in 
special  branches  of  instruction;  but  in  time  the  normal  and 
teachers'  training  schools  have  provided  the  means  for 
teachers  fitting  themselves  to  give  this  instruction  under 
the  direction  of  supervisors,  or  even  without  it,  as  in  the 
case  of  small  schools  where  there  is  no  special  supervision. 
Is  it  not  probable  that  the  same  experience  will  be  repeated 
in  the  matter  of  instruction  in  vocational  guidance  for  the 
smaller  school  systems  that  cannot  have  the  various  depart- 
ments of  vocational  instruction  and  help?  In  the  meantime 
those  teachers  who  earnestly  desire  to  help  their  pupils  in 


260  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

this  important  matter  can  do  much,  if  they  will  take  the 
trouble  to  read  and  inform  themselves  regarding  the  ways 
and  means  that  are  being  tried  out  in  other  schools  and  to 
study  the  immediate  problem  as  it  affects  their  own  pupils. 
They  can  adapt  to  local  conditions  the  means  that  are  prov- 
ing of  value  in  other  places,  and  they  can  devise  plans  for 
meeting  the  conditions  and  the  vocational  opportunities  in 
their  own  communities. 

Practical  suggestions  for  vocational  guidance.  A  few 
practical  suggestions  as  to  instruction  in  vocational  guid- 
ance are  offered.  The  teacher  can  formulate  many  other 
exercises  of  a  similar  character,  selecting  his  material  from 
the  distinctive  classes  of  vocations  in  the  immediate  locaUty. 
When  possible,  j)ersons  from  the  various  occupations  in  the 
town  should  be  asked  to  speak  to  the  school  upon  various 
phases  of  their  respective  vocations.  Conferences  should  be 
held  by  the  teacher  and  pupils,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
vocational  director,  where  there  is  one,  for  the  discussions 
of  the  vocations  under  consideration. 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  ask  questions,  to  be  made 
the  subject  of  study  and  investigation  on  the  jxirt  of  them- 
selves and  their  classmates.  Reports  upon  these  investiga- 
tions should  be  made  the  occasion  for  free  and  lively  dis- 
cussions of  the  questions  and  problems  presented.  Such 
conferences  will  prove  a  means  of  arousing  interest  and  of 
furnishing  opportunities  for  investigation  and  concrete 
experience  The  reports  should  sometimes  be  written,  as  the 
writing  of  a  carefully  prepared  report  will  make  it  necessary 
that  pupils  obtain  accurate  and  somewhat  complete  infor- 
mation upon  the  particular  phase  of  the  vocations  being 
reported.  Some  outlines  are  given,  as  suggestive  for  the 
treatment  of  some  of  the  local  occupations.  These  are  not 
intended  to  be  exhaustive,  but  are  offered  merely  as  examples 
of  tlie  kind  of  instruction  regarding  the  vocations  that  can 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  261 

be  given  in  any  school.  Other  vocations  might  have  been 
taken  instead  of  the  ones  selected,  and  the  teacher  can  ana- 
lyze in  a  similar  manner  those  which  in  his  judgment  best 
suit  his  particular  requirements. 

All  vocations  offer  both  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
All  vocations  have  features  that  make  them  attractive  and 
other  features  that  make  them  unattractive  to  certain  indi- 
viduals. This  fact  will  furnish  the  basis  for  the  first  analysis. 
Other  considerations  may  be  made  the  basis  for  further 
study  if  desired.  It  will  readily  be  understood  that  some 
phases  of  the  analysis  and  many  questions  arising  from  it 
should  be  answered  by  some  person  who  thoroughly  under- 
stands the  vocation  under  consideration.  The  discussion 
and  investigation  of  a  vocation  presented  for  study  may  be 
carried  as  far  as  the  particular  case  indicates,  and  reix)rts 
both  oral  and  written  may  be  called  for  upon  certain  fea- 
tures. Similarly,  other  vocations  may  be  discussed  in  con- 
nection with  it,  and  persons  following  these  particular  voca- 
tions should  be  invited  to  address  the  school  and  attend 
the  conference  following  the  address  or  discussion.  As  an 
example  of  a  study  of  a  well-known  and  typical  vocation, 
that  of  the  profession  of  medicine  is  offered :  — 

The  Profession  of  Medicine  as  a  Vocation 

I.  Advantages:  — 

1.  A  highly  respected  and  creative  vocation. 

2.  Insures  a  good  living  income. 

3.  Affords  an  opportunity  for  highly  specialized  effort. 

4.  Furnishes  constant  opportunity  for  service  to  humanity. 

5.  Gives  a  high  standing  in  the  community  and  hence  influ- 
ence as  a  citizen. 

6.  Imposes  a  stimulating  responsibility  upon  those  engaged 
in  it. 

7.  The  aim  is  definite  and  unmistakable. 

It, 

8.  Furnishes  opportunities  for  growth. 


262  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING  ' 

II.  Disadvantages  and  difficulties:  — 

1.  It  requires  years  of  study  and  much  expense  in  prepara- 
tion. 

2.  A  long  time  often  necessary  for  establishing  a  reputation. 

3.  Uncertain  hours  —  subject  to  call  at  any  time  of  day  or 
night. 

4.  Responsibility  for  human  life  often  a  great  burden. 

5.  DiflBculty  of  collecting  bills  often  entails  financial  loss. 

6.  Arduous  duties  of  the  physician  very  wearing  upon  the 
strength. 

Discussion  of  the  profession  of  medicine.  A  skillful  and 
worthy  representative  of  this  profession  is  always  assured 
of  a  good  standing  in  the  community  and  of  the  respect  and 
confidence  of  his  associates.  Since  the  treatment  of  disease 
requires  special  knowledge  and  skill,  the  physician  is  a  so- 
cial necessity.  Hence  his  importance  among  his  fellow-men. 
Because  of  the  knowledge  and  skill  required  for  the  success- 
ful practice  of  his  profession,  it  is  not  surprising  that  it 
should  be  considered  so  important  and  that  the  worthy 
members  of  this  profession  should  have  the  respect  and 
confidence  of  society.  The  physician  has  to  deal  with  people 
of  all  classes  and  conditions,  rich  and  poor,  young  and  old, 
and  under  the  most  trying  circumstances.  Hence  he  must 
be  a  man  who,  to  his  knowledge  and  ability  as  a  practitioner, 
adds  infinite  patience  and  skill  in  dealing  with  different 
classes  of  people  and  with  widely  different  temperaments. 
It  is  not  every  person  who  has  these  qualifications;  and  the 
one  who  does  not  possess  them,  at  least  in  a  moderate  degree, 
or  who  cannot  increase  and  build  upon  those  which  he  has, 
should  not  select  the  profession  of  medicine  as  a  life-work. 
Moreover,  the  physician  should  be  a  person  with  a  strong 
physical  constitution,  in  order  to  be  able  to  endure  the 
strain  to  which  he  is  often  subjected  by  long  hours  and 
great  responsibility.  lie  should  be  a  man  with  a  cheerful 
disposition  and  a  kind  and  sympathetic  nature,  and  at  the 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  2C3 

same  time  be  possessed  of  decision  and  firmness.  In  short, 
he  should  be  the  tyi)e  of  man  who,  by  his  presence,  words, 
and  manner,  insj)ires  confidence  and  gives  hope  and  cheer. 
With  the  natural  qualifications  suggested  above  and  a 
genius  for  hard,  painstaking  work,  the  person  who  has  an 
inclination  for  the  kind  of  effort  and  the  life  which  this  pro- 
fession offers  should  make  a  worthy  and  able  physician, 
provided  he  has  the  means  for  making  the  required  prepara- 
tion. This  preparation  must  be  thorough;  for  the  responsi- 
bility of  a  doctor  for  the  lives  antl  welfare  of  his  patients  is 
too  great  to  be  assumed  by  a  person  who  has  not  made  the 
necessary  preparation  for  it.  Besides,  the  physician  must 
be  a  man  who  loves  his  chosen  work  well  enough  to  put  his 
whole  heart  and  soul  into  it,  must  love  it  sufficiently  to 
bear  all  kinds  of  inconvenience  and  fatigue  in  the  discharge 
of  his  duties,  and  must  be  willing  to  make  any  necessary 
sacrifice  of  personal  pleasure  and  profit  for  the  physical 
welfare  of  those  intrusted  to  his  care.  Although  the  re- 
quirements are  positive  and  the  responsibilities  great,  the 
profession  offers  attractive  features  to  those  who  have  the 
natural  taste  and  aptitude  for  it.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
noble  of  the  professions  and  one  in  which  the  man  who 
desires  conscientiously  to  serve  his  fellow-men  will  find  full 
opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  his  powers. 

Agriculture  as  a  Vocation 
I.  Advantages:  — 

1.  It  is  a  creative  vocation,  since  science  has  been  applied 
to  farming  methods. 

2.  More  independent  than  most  vocations. 

3.  Man  can  engage  in  agriculture  and  maintain  himself  on 
a  small  capital. 

4.  Healthful,  because  of  wholesome  food,  pure  air,  and  a 
sense  of  freedom. 

5.  Competition  less  hurtful  then  in  most  vocations. 


264  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

6.  Abundant  opportunity  for  specialization.  Can  vary  crops 

to  suit  location  and  markets. 

7.  Less  risk  than  in  many  other  vocations. 

8.  Morally  healthful  for  the  young. 

9.  Children  acquire  fundamental  concepts  through  constant 
contact  with  material  things. 

IT.  Disadvantages:  — 

1.  Actual  returns  or  profits  in  money  usually  small  for  the 
effort  expended. 

2.  Difficulty  of  securing  intelligent  and  skillful  workers. 

3.  Possible  inconvenience  or  isolation  of  location. 

4.  Possible  lack  of  good  church,  school,  library,  and  other 
intellectual  advantages. 

5.  Products  determined  by  uncertain  weather  conditions. 

Vocation  of  agriculture  considered.  The  advantages  enu- 
merated above  indicate  that  when  a  man  likes  to  live  in 
the  country  he  will  find  much  in  agricultural  life  that  will 
commend  it  to  him.  It  will  be  especially  attractive  to 
those  who,  with  natural  inclination  toward  the  particular 
kind  of  life  and  work  which  an  agricultural  pursuit  offers, 
have  little  capital  with  which  to  begin.  The  independence 
of  the  life  of  the  agriculturalists  appeals  to  many  who  do  not 
enjoy  working  for  wages  or  upon  a  salary  in  the  factory,  in 
the  shop,  or  in  the  office  of  another  man.  Moreover,  the 
varied  phases  of  agricultural  effort  make  it  possible  for  a 
man  to  select  that  particular  kind  which  suits  his  taste,  the 
character  of  his  land,  and  the  demands  of  his  market.  There- 
fore he  may  choose,  according  to  conditions,  fruit-raising, 
gardening,  dairy-farming,  poultry-raising,  or  general  farm- 
ing, and  he  may  combine  any  of  these  or  other  lines  that 
appeal  to  him.  Since  scientific  knowledge  has  been  applied  to 
agriculture,  and  instruction  in  this  important  branch  of 
industry  has  been  added  to  the  college  curriculum,  agricul- 
ture has  become  a  highly  creative  vocation.  Another  result 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  265 

of  applying  scientific  principles  to  agriculture  has  been  to 
make  it  more  highly  productive  as  well  as  more  interesting 
and  attractive  to  intelligent  and  educated  people. 

At  no  time  in  the  world's  history  has  the  vocation  of 
agriculture  been  considered  more  dignified  and  attractive 
than  now.  To  add  to  its  natural  attractions,  modern  ma- 
chinery and  improvements  have  contributed  greatly  toward 
doing  away  with  the  former  drudgery  and  the  disadvan- 
tages of  life  and  work  in  the  country.  Now  the  farmer 
may  ride  his  plough,  his  harrow,  his  mower,  his  rake, 
and  other  machines.  By  means  of  the  telephone,  the  free 
delivery,  and  the  automobile,  he  enjoys  practically  all  the 
advantages  of  the  town,  and  by  means  of  the  modern  im- 
provements in  his  home,  his  wife  and  daughters  are  greatly 
relieved  from  the  drudgery  which  formerly  made  life  on 
the  farm  for  them  so  irksome.  It  will  be  very  easy  for  the 
teacher  to  extend  the  discussion  of  the  advantages  of  agri- 
culture as  a  vocation  by  going  more  into  details  and  taking 
certain  kinds  of  agriculture  for  special  consideration.  By 
presenting  the  attractions  of  life  in  the  country  to  those 
who  enjoy  the  beauty  of  nature,  and  the  free,  healthful  life 
that  it  offers,  a  study  of  this  vocation  may  be  made  inter- 
esting as  well  as  instructive. 

With  regard  to  the  disadvantages  of  agriculture  as  a  vo- 
cation, some  of  these  in  a  great  many  districts  have  been 
overcome.  In  many  localities  the  distance  from  the  towns, 
with  the  consequent  isolation,  is  no  longer  the  great  hard- 
ship that  it  was  in  earlier  days  when  the  farmer  was  obliged 
to  drive  to  the  nearest  town  for  his  mail,  his  merchandise,  or 
to  discuss  matters  of  business  with  those  with  whom  he  had 
dealings.  Now  in  many  localities  his  merchandise  and  his 
mail  are  brought  to  his  door;  and  by  means  of  the  telephone 
he  can  talk  with  whom  he  wishes  at  any  time  of  the  day. 
The  clubs  and  other  organizations  for  the  social  and  business 


266  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

intercourse  of  the  farmers  with  their  neighbors  have  done 
very  much  to  reUeve  the  loneUness  of  which  people  living 
in  the  country  formerly  complained. 

Manufacttjring  as  a  Vocation 
I.  Advantages:  — 

1.  A  positive  vocation  and  the  work  highly  creative. 

2.  Afforrls  desirable  contact  with  man  and  life. 

3.  Furnishes  opportunities  for  development  and  growth. 

4.  Steady  demand  for  manufactured  product. 

5.  In  general  a  respectable  and  dignified  occupation. 

n.  Disadvantages:  — 

1.  Plant  and  equipment,  usually  expensive,  requiring  large 
capital  investment  in  the  beginning. 

2.  Constant  repair  and  renewal  of  plant  necessary. 
8.  Insurance  and  other  current  expenses  large. 

4.  Length  of  time  required  to  make  needed  preparation  for 
assuming  management  of  business. 

5.  Competition  with  unscrupulous  competitors  who  pro- 
duce inferior  articles. 

6.  Strikes  and  other  labor  diflBculties. 

Manufacturing  considered.  The  above  items  relate  to  the 
owner  or  the  manager  of  a  manufacturing  plant.  Many  of 
them  apply  to  the  hired  individual  workers  as  well.  The 
characteristics  of  the  vocation  are  somewhat  the  same, 
whether  one  is  the  owner  of  the  factory  or  is  a  hired  laborer 
in  it;  and  the  opportunities  for  advancement  are  always 
open  to  those  who  bring  intelligence,  industry,  and  sincerity 
to  their  work  in  whatever  branch  of  the  industry  they  may 
be  employed.  While  the  employee  is  not  directly  concerned 
with  the  expense  of  the  plant,  the  capital  required  to  meet 
the  expense  of  producing  the  manufactured  articles,  and  the 
condition  of  the  market,  he  is  indirectly  affected  by  these 
matters,  as  they  determine  his  wage  and  the  permanence  of 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  267 

his  position.  Strikes  and  other  outcomes  of  the  struggle 
between  capital  and  labor  fall  with  as  great  severity  upon 
the  employee  as  upon  the  employer.  With  regard  to  the 
preparation  of  the  individual  worker,  this  will  depend 
entirely  upon  the  particular  branch  of  the  industry  in  which 
he  wishes  to  engage,  and  the  time  required  to  make  this 
preparation  will  be  governed  accordingly.  Naturally  the 
broad  and  intimate  knowledge  of  the  various  departments 
of  the  industry  which  are  necessary  for  the  manager  is  not 
required  by  the  laborers  in  the  various  departments,  and 
the  responsibility  of  the  latter  is  limited  to  their  particular 
work.  For  exami)le,  a  cutter  in  a  shoe  factory  is  resi)on- 
sible  only  for  the  work  which  he  himself  performs.  He  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  making  of  the  shoe  which  he  cuts 
out. 

Manufacturing  as  a  vocation  presents  many  attractive 
features  and  has  much  to  commend  it  to  those  seeking  a 
creative,  profitable,  stable,  and  interesting  vocation.  The 
many  constant  opportunities  which  it  offers  for  creative, 
productive  effort  make  a  strong  appeal  to  those  who  with 
some  originality  have  the  talent  for  applying  this  to  their 
work.  The  results  of  such  effort  in  the  improvements  in 
machinery  and  methods  of  work  and  the  attractive  incomes 
are  continually  increasing  the  desirabiUty  of  manufacturing 
as  a  vocation  and  drawing  to  it  a  more  intelligent  and  better 
educated  class  of  men  both  as  managers  and  as  owners. 

The  preparation  necessary  for  engaging  in  this  voca- 
tion will  be  determined  by  the  requirements  of  the  partic- 
ular branch  of  the  industry  in  which  a  man  wishes  to 
engage  and  by  the  particular  kind  of  work  he  wishes  to  do. 
If  he  wishes  to  fit  himself  for  the  management  of  some 
particular  manufacturing  industry,  he  must,  after  having 
decided  upon  the  special  branch  in  which  he  will  engage, 
gain  a  clear  knowledge  of  all  its  requirements.    He  must 


268  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

know  something  of  the  sources  of  the  raw  material  and  of 
how  it  can  be  best  and  most  economically  obtained.  He 
must  familiarize  himself  with  the  markets,  the  probable  de- 
mand for  the  manufactured  article,  and  the  cost  of  placing 
it  within  reach  of  the  consumer.  He  should  have  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  particular  manufacturing  process,  includ- 
ing an  acquaintance  with  the  best  machinery  and  the  best 
methods.  With  such  a  preparation,  combined  with  intelli- 
gence and  industry,  a  man  has  every  chance  under  normal 
conditions  to  make  a  success  of  his  undertaking. 

As  already  suggested,  the  preparation  of  the  individual 
worker  or  citizen  depends  largely  upon  the  particular  line 
of  work  in  which  he  wishes  to  engage.  Hence  his  prepara- 
tion is  not  of  necessity  so  broad  as  that  of  the  person  who 
plans  and  oversees  the  work  of  the  various  departments 
of  a  manufacturing  plant.  What  he  needs  primarily  is  a 
mastery  of  the  technique  of  his  particular  line  of  work.  In 
connection  with  his  own  special  work,  it  is  of  importance 
that  he  have  as  complete  knowledge  as  possible  of  the  other 
departments  related  to  his  own,  and  even  more  important 
than  this,  he  should  have  an  understanding  of  the  principles 
and  rules  underlying  the  industry  as  a  whole.  The  farther 
he  is  able  to  carry  this  last  the  better  prepared  will  he  be 
for  doing  his  particular  work  intelligently,  rather  than 
merely  mechanically,  and  the  more  likely  will  he  be  to 
advance. 

Trade  and  Commerce  as  Vocations 

I.  Advantages:  — 

1.  When  reputable  are  desirable  and  respected  vocations. 

2.  May  be  made  creative. 

3.  May  be  begun  with  small  capital. 

4.  Reasonable  returns  for  effort  expended. 

5.  Stimulates  one  to  best  effort. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  2(59 

IT.  Disadvantages:  — 

1.  Sharp  competition. 

2.  Insurance  and  current  expenses  high. 

3.  Loss  through  carelessness,  waste,  surplus  stock,  and  de- 
terioration of  goods. 

4.  A  fickle  public,  making  market  variable. 

5.  Success  largely  dependent  upon  prosperity  of  the  com- 
munity or  the  consumers. 

The  advantages  of  commercial  vocations  are  apparent, 
and  a  person  having  a  natural  taste  for  trade  and  commerce, 
in  some  of  its  many  branches,  will  find  many  attractive  fea- 
tures in  them.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  disadvan- 
tages that  one  should  consider  carefully  before  taking  up 
mercantile  life  or  any  branch  of  commercial  business.  As 
an  evidence  that  a  person  should  exercise  the  greatest  care 
in  considering  the  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  a  commercial  life  and  also  his  fitness  and  proper  prepara- 
tion for  it,  we  have  the  unmistakable  testimony  of  statistics 
to  show  that  fully  seventy  per  cent  of  those  who  enter  mer- 
cantile pursuits  do  not  make  a  success  of  the  undertaking. 

Various  reasons  are  given  for  this  great  number  of  failures; 
but  the  main  reasons  are  undoubtedly  want  of  proper  prepa- 
ration, and  consequent  ignorance  of  the  business,  coupled 
with  insufficient  knowledge  of  the  conditions  to  be  met  and 
the  difficulties  to  be  overcome.  Much  of  the  success  in  a 
commercial  life  depends  upon  the  ability  to  buy  advan- 
tageously; that  is,  not  only  to  get  full  value  for  the  money 
expended,  but  to  buy  such  goods  as  will  meet  the  demands 
of  the  buyer  and  hence  will  find  a  ready  sale.  It  is  true  that 
many  financial  failures  in  the  commercial  world,  as  well  as 
in  other  lines  of  business,  are  due  to  outside  conditions  — 
such  as  panics  —  which  even  the  most  skillful  and  careful 
business  man  is  unable  to  overcome.  To  meet  such  condi- 
tions without  being  submerged  by  them,  one  must  have 


270  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

more  than  a  knowledge  of  the  details  of  his  particular  line 
of  business.  He  must  be  possessed  of  that  particular  apti- 
tude for  his  particular  vocation  which  is  known  as  "busi- 
ness sense."  It  has  taken  a  long  time  for  people  to  leam 
that  every  one  cannot  make  a  success  of  buying  and  selling, 
that  it  requires  special  qualifications  and  a  careful  prepara- 
tion on  the  part  of  those  who  wish  to  make  a  success  of  it. 
In  many  respects  commercial  vocations  are  among  the  most 
uncertain  and  hazardous,  but  when  they  are  successful 
they  are  both  remunerative  and  satisfactory. 

Local  industries  and  business.  Naturally  children  will 
have  some  first-hand  knowledge  of  local  industries  and  will 
in  consequence  be  most  interested  in  them.  This  knowledge 
the  teacher  can  use  as  a  starting-point  in  getting  information 
about  and  reports  upon  certain  vocations  or  particular 
branches  of  vocations  in  the  locality.  The  discussions  that 
should  follow  these  reports  will  arouse  and  stimulate  inter- 
est, set  the  pupils  to  thinking  and  investigating  for  them- 
selves, and  thus  lead  to  practical  results. 

Every  community  has  some  men  engaged  in  the  various 
vocations  and  professions  who  will  be  wilhng  to  come  to  the 
school  and  give  practical  talks  upon  the  characteristics  of 
these  occupations,  their  advantages  and  disadvantages, 
the  requirements  for  success  in  them,  and  the  preparation 
needed  to  enter  them.  These  may  be  made  of  great  value  to 
the  pupils,  as  these  men  out  of  their  own  experiences  will 
give  much  practical  information  and  make  manj'^  instruc- 
tive and  helpful  suggestions.  IVIany  a  thoughtful  boy  will 
be  directed  in  his  choice  of  a  life-work  by  the  information 
thus  gained,  or  as  the  result  of  the  response  within  himself 
that  brings  into  consciousness  his  own  natural  bent,  pref- 
erences and  possibilities. 

Vocational  counselor.  Another  important  phase  of  voca- 
tional guidance  is  that  of  the  vocational  adviser  or  coun- 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  271 

selor.  Such  a  counselor  may  work  in  conjunction  with  the 
school  or  he  may  be  connected  with  a  distinct  vocational 
guidance  bureau,  not  connected  with  the  school.  In  the 
larger  cities  where  vocational  guidance  and  instruction  have 
become  an  established  feature  of  school  work,  there  is  usu- 
ally such  a  counselor  in  charge  of  a  vocational  bureau.  The 
purpose  of  this  bureau  is  not  so  much  the  finding  of  posi- 
tions for  boys  and  girls  as  helping  them  to  find  out  what 
vocations  they  should  enter  and  then  assisting  them  to 
obtain  positions  in  these  vocations  where  they  may  try 
themselves  out. 

There  should  be  a  vocational  counselor  in  every  commu- 
nity, preferably  in  connection  with  the  school  system.  This 
counselor  should  have  a  large  fund  of  information  about 
vocations,  particularly  those  of  the  locality,  lie  should  be 
well  informed  regarding  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  each  and  of  the  qualifications  and  preparation  required 
for  engaging  in  them,  lie  should  also  know  the  demand  for 
workers  and  the  remuneration  in  the  various  callings,  the 
probable  permanence  of  the  vocation,  the  opportunity 
offered  for  advancement,  increase  of  earnings,  and  many 
other  details  relating  to  them.  Since  it  is  his  office  to  pre- 
vent those  who  consult  with  him  from  getting  into  the  wrong 
vocations  and  to  help  them  to  find  the  right  ones,  he  must 
have  much  definite  knowledge  of  the  demands  which  various 
callings  put  ui>on  those  who  engage  in  them,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent young  persons  from  drifting  into  vocations  for  which 
they  are  physically  or  temperamentally  unfit.  In  the  chance, 
hit-and-miss  method  of  drifting  into  a  vocation  or  a  job,  it 
often  happens  that  a  person  falls  ignorantly  into  a  kind  of 
occupation  for  which  he  is  physically  unfit,  and  a  loss  of 
health  and  often  even  death  result  in  consequence.  In  a 
large  number  of  cases  he  drifts  by  chance  into  one  of  the 
many  "blind-alley"  occupations,  which  lead  to  nothing 


272  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

beyond,  but  are  closed  to  advancement.  As  a  result  he  finds 
himself  in  about  the  same  position  at  thirty  as  he  was  at 
twenty,  with  no  hope  for  the  future.  From  such  a  fate  the 
vocational  counselor  should  save  those  who  come  to  him 
for  assistance  by  directing  them  toward  vocations  in  which 
they  will  find  opportunities  for  growth,  advancement,  and 
joy,  vocations  in  which  their  "souls  will  sing." 

The  vocational  adviser  must  not  only  be  well  informed 
regarding  the  various  vocations,  but  he  must  obtain  much 
definite  information  about  the  persons  whom  he  wishes  to 
direct.  He  must  know  them  physically,  temperamentally, 
and  intellectually.  He  must  know  something  of  their  habits 
and  natural  qualifications,  of  the  time  they  can  give  to 
I)reparing  for  their  vocations,  and  in  fact  everything  that 
should  be  considered  in  choosing  a  life-work.  Finally,  the 
ideal  vocational  counselor  should  be  of  sufficient  age  and 
experience  to  know  life  and  its  problems.  He  should,  as  a 
result  of  large  experience  and  study  of  social  and  economic 
problems,  have  a  deep  sympathy  with  young  people,  and  a 
sincere  purpose  to  be  of  real  service  to  those  who  look  to  him 
for  help.  The  methods  by  which  the  counselor  or  the  voca- 
tional bureau  may  obtain  the  desired  information  regarding 
vocations  and  the  persons  who  wish  to  enter  them,  so  as  to 
prevent  misfits,  will  naturally  vary  according  to  conditions. 
For  the  assistance  of  those  who  desire  some  suggestions  for 
gaining  this  information  the  following  scheme  is  offered. 

Pupil's  Information  Card 

Pupil's  name 

Pupil's  age , 

Father's  name nationality 

Mother's  name nationality 

Father's  occupation 

Present  grade  or  class  in  school 

How  long  can  you  remain  in  school? 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE 


273 


Can  your  parents  afford  to  keep  you  in  school? 

What  are  your  favorite  studies? 

Name  some  favorite  books  that  you  have  read 

Name  three  great  men  that  you  admire 

How  do  you  spend  your  time  when  your  tasks  are  finished,  play, 

read,  or  work? 

Make  a  list  of  things  you  like  to  do 

Name  three  things  you  like  to  do,  in  order  of  preference 

How  do  you  spend  your  evenings? 

What  is  your  weight? Height? 

Have  you  ever  b^en  sick? What  disease? 

Eye  test Ear  test 

Have  you  ever  earned  money? ^   How? 'How  much? 

On  the  reverse  side  of  the  card  useful  information  may  be 
gained  upon  the  following  points:  — 

Draw  a  line  under  each  of  the  vocations  below  which  you  would 
be  willing  to  follow  all  your  life.  Draw  two  lines  under  those  you 
think  you  would  like  best. 


Profetsiofu 

Indtutrial 

Agricultural 

Commercial 

EouBchoU 

Physician 

Manufacturer 

General  fanner 

Merchant  .  ''' 

Cook 

Lawyer! 

Machinist 

Fruit-grower 

Banker 

Housekeeper 

Minister 

Carpenter 

Stock-raiser 

Broker 

Sewing 

Artist 

Painter 

Nurseryman 

Commission 

Musician 

Printer 

Gardener 

Insurance 

Teacher 

Tailor 

Actor 

Dressmaker 

Nurse  (trained)  Milliner 


Parents*  Report 

Name Address 

Name  of  child 

How  long  can  you  keep  him  in  school? 

Is  it  necessary  that  he  leave  school  to  earn  his  living? 

What  vocation  do  you  wish  him  to  learn? 

For  what  occupation  do  you  think  him  best  adapted? 

Can  you  assist  him  in  selecting  a  vocation  ? 

Is  his  health  good? 

Is  he  industrious? 

Has  he  perseverence? 

Are  his  personal  habits  good? 


274  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACmNG 

^Teacheb'b  Report  ^ 

Pupil's  name 

Pupil's  age 

Class  or  grade 

Attendance  regular  or  irregular? Times  tardy? 

Best  in  what  subjects? Poorest  in  what  subjects?  . . 

Industrious  or  indifferent? 

Neat  or  untidj'  in  habits? 

Physical  condition? 

Continue  in  school  after  present  year? 

Expect  to  graduate  from  high  school? 

After  school  what?   (College  —  normal  —  trade  school.)  ] 
Pupil's  vocational  plan? 

Employer's  Report 

Nature  of  occupation 

Name  of  firm 

Address  of  firm 

Superintendent  or  manager   

How  do  you  secure  employees? 

State  minimum  age  at  which  boys  and  girls  are  employed  . 

What  preparation  is  necessary? 

How  many  employees  have  you? 

State  wages  paid  to  various  classes  of  employees ">■. 

State  beginning  and  ultimate  wage  for  each  class ] 

State  hours  of  service  required 

What  natural  qualifications  required? 

What  information  regarding  applicants  required? 

Will  you  take  persons  sent  you  by  the  vocational  bureau? 


Naturally,  the  teacher  or  vocational  director  using  such 
a  card  system  as  here  suggested  will  select  and  arrange  the 
items  to  suit  local  conditions  and  the  particular  information 
desired.  The  records  of  the  vocational  bureau  should  con- 
tain complete  information  regarding  applicants  for  counsel, 
and  regarding  the  available  vocations  with  the  particu- 
lar fitness  and  preparation  needed  for  entering  them.  Such 
matters  as  the  attitude  of  employers  toward  their  employees 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  275 

and  the  measures  used  for  the  comfort,  convenience,  and 
recreation  of  the  latter  should  also  be  investigated  and 
recorded.  The  health  officer  should  be  required  to  report 
upon  the  sanitary  and  health  conditions  of  the  various  em- 
ployments offered.  All  this  information  is  important,  for 
the  selection  of  a  life-work  is  a  matter  of  such  serious  con- 
sequences to  the  young  that  too  much  care  cannot  be  exer- 
cised in  safeguarding  against  mistakes  in  the  choice. 

Relation  of  schools  to  vocational  problem.  This  movement 
is  not  a  fad  nor  a  passing  theory.  It  is  a  serious  endeavor  on 
the  part  of  educators  to  make  the  schools  articulate  better 
with  life  and  its  problems,  through  helping  the  young  to  find 
their  places  in  the  great  work-a-day  world  into  which  they 
are  abruptly  thrown  when  the  door  of  the  schoolhouse  closes 
behind  them.  It  is  an  endeavor  to  bridge  over  the  gap 
between  the  school  and  practical  life  by  bringing  the  actual 
problems  of  life  into  the  school  for  solution.  Vocational 
guidance  is  a  social  problem  and  it  is  as  the  agent  of  society 
that  the  schools  are  endeavoring  to  solve  it.  The  day  has 
passed  when  education  can  be  spoken  of  in  terms  of  so  much 
book  knowledge.  The  only  education  that  educates,  that 
enables  a  person  to  interpret  aright  the  civilization  of  to-day, 
must  prepare  him  to  react  properly  in  whatever  situations 
in  life  he  may  find  himself,  must  fit  him  for  social  efficiency, 
must  prepare  him  to  be  a  useful  contributor  and  producer 
to  society  as  well  as  a  consumer;  —  in  short  it  must  help 
the  boys  and  girls  who  are  going  out  into  the  world  to  make 
their  way  vocationally,  to  find  the  places  for  which  nature 
and  their  preparation  fit  them.  When  the  school  does  this 
it  will  have  taken  a  long  step  forward  toward  the  solution  of 
the  problem  of  the  adjustment  of  the  masses  to  their  proper 
places  in  the  social  organism  of  the  day.  Then  will  be  realized 
that  ideal  condition  in  which  misfits  will  be  the  excep- 
tion rather  than  the  rule,  and  the  great  army  of  unskilled 


276  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

unemployed  will  be  practically  unknown.  This  cannot  be 
accomplished  suddenly,  it  is  true;  but  if  the  school  and  those 
interested  in  this  important  matter  of  vocational  adjust- 
ment will  continue  the  work  so  ably  begun,  society  will  be 
enriched  by  an  enlarged  number  of  contented  workers,  and 
the  school  will  have  discharged  its  function  both  to  society 
and  to  the  nation  in  the  production  of  efficient  citizens. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Vocational  Guidance,  Bulletin  no.  14,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 
1914. 

Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth,  Bloomfield. 

Problems  of  Vocational  Guidance:  Learning  to  Earn,  Happ  and  Mote. 

Reading  in  Vocational  Guidance,  Bloom6eld. 

Vocational  Bureaus,  Biblix)graphy  for.  Bulletin  no.  22,  United  States  Bu- 
reau of  Education.  1913. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  things  a  boy  should  consider  when  choosing  a 
vocation? 

2.  "All  honest  work  is  honorable."  If  you  believe  this  statement,  de- 
,  fend  it.  If  you  do  not  believe  it,  explain  the  reason  for  your  posir 
''    tion. 

3.  Ask  ten  men  whom  you  know  why  they  are  following  the  vocation  in 
which  they  are  engaged.  Ask  them  if  they  would  select  the  same  voca- 
tions if  they  were  again  free  to  choose.  Report  their  answers. 

4.  What  vocation  makes  the  strongest  appeal  to  you?  What  points  of 
advantage  does  it  possess?  What  points  of  disadvantage?  Where 
could  you  get  information  about  it? 

5.  Why  do  most  parents  prefer  that  their  sons  should  be  bookkeepers 
instead  of  carpenters?  Consider  whether  the  reasons  are  laudable 
ones. 

6.  Name  five  vocations  that  have  creative  possibilities  in  them;  five  that 
have  but  little  creative  possibilities  in  them. 

7.  Explain  how  the  proper  choice  of  a  vocation  influences  a  person's  life. 
Name  some  "blind-alley"  occupations,  and  tell  why  they  are  to  be 
avoided.  Which  would  you  choose,  a  job  that  pays  you  ten  dol- 
lars per  week  with  no  chance  for  advancement,  or  one  which  would 
pay  only  six  dollars  at  the  beginning,  but  offers  opportunity  for  pro- 
motion? 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  277 

8.  Name  ten  boys  in  your  home  community  who  will  probably  be  in  some 
'desirable  work  through  life,  and  state  the  reasons  for  your  selection 

in  each  case. 

9.  A  man  having  a  good  position  in  a  bank  has  a  real  passion  for  dra- 
matic work.  He  is  married  and  has  a  wife  and  two  children.  Should 
he  leave  his  position  and  enter  ujjon  the  work  he  likes  better  or  con- 
tinue in  the  bank?   Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

10.  When  should  a  person  choose  his  vocation.'  How  should  a  person 
choose  a  vocation?  A  boy  wants  to  be  a  mechanic  but  his  father 
and  mother  want  him  to  be  a  lawyer.  Should  the  boy  follow  his  own 
wish  or  the  wishes  of  his  parents?  Give  one  or  two  reasons  that  the 
parents  might  have  for  insisting  upon  his  being  a  lawyer.  Give  some 
reasons  the  boy  might  have  for  preferring  to  be  a  mechanic. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  CHILD'S  ABILITY  KNOWN  AND   UTILIZED 

Variation  of  ability  in  persons.  Much  is  heard  about  the 
capacity  of  machines,  the  productiveness  of  soil,  and  the 
ability  of  people.  In  each  case  the  phrase  used  suggests  a 
force  and  a  medium  upon  which  the  force  may  act.  Both 
this  force  and  the  medium  upon  which  it  acts  are  usually 
spoken  of  in  terms  of  result.  One  often  hears  it  said  that 
a  car  goes  a  certain  distance,  a  mill  produces  so  many  barrels 
of  flour,  the  farmer  ploughs  a  stated  area  of  ground,  the 
political  candidate  makes  a  given  number  of  speeches. 

Just  as  there  is  a  wide  range  in  the  power  or  force  in 
machines,  so  there  is  a  wide  range  in  the  ability  of  people. 
This  varying  ability  is  due  to  the  inherent  forces  of  the  in- 
dividual and  to  the  organization  and  control  of  these  forces. 
The  range  of  differences  in  native  capacity  extends  from 
the  low  mental  state  of  those  few  unfortunate  creatures 
having  the  lowest  degree  of  ability  known  in  creatures  who 
are  classed  as  human  beings,  more  because  of  parentage 
than  of  any  human  p)ower  that  they  have,  to  that  of  an- 
other comparatively  small  group  of  persons  at  the  opposite 
extreme  of  the  abihty  range  who  have  the  highest  degree  of 
natural  ability  and  are  spoken  of  as  geniuses.  Between 
these  two  extremes  are  found  all  degrees  of  ability  which  the 
great  mass  of  human  beings  represent,  and  these  may  be 
grouped  according  to  the  amount  of  mental  ability  possessed 
in  each  case.  This  range  of  human  power  or  ability  may 
be  indicated  by  the  diagram  on  page  279.  On  this  diagram 
the  lowest  degree  of  abiUty  is  indicated  by  1,  and  the  high- 


THE  CHILD'S  ABILITY  KNOWN  AND  UTILIZED    279 

est  by  5,  with  all  other  abilities  falling  between  these  two 
extremes,  roughly  grouped  under  2,  3,  and  4. 

Sub-normal  ability.  The  degree  of  natural  abiUty,  some- 
what higher  than  that  indicated  on  the  diagram  by  1,  is 
represented  by  the  group  of  persons  indicated  by  2.  Al- 
though the  mental  capacity  of  the  persons  belonging  to  this 
group  is  much  higher  than  that  of  those  in  group  1,  they  are 
still  below  the  average  mentally.  Unlike  group  1,  the  mem- 
bers of  the  second  group  have  normal  bodies,  and  so  far  as 


their  physical  condition  is  concerned  they  may  be  consid- 
ered normal  human  beings.  It  is  only  when  some  mental 
effort  is  required  of  them  that  they  show  deficiency.  As 
these  persons  vary  greatly  in  their  mental  capacity,  they 
are  graded  in  the  popular  mind  according  to  the  degree  of 
their  defects  into  "feeble-minded,"  "mentally  deficient," 
"weak-minded,"  or  "sub-normal,"  according  to  their  in- 
tellectuality. For  those  children  whose  mental  capacity  is 
so  far  below  the  average  that  they  cannot  sufficiently  under- 
stand the  instruction  given  in  the  regular  school,  special 
schools  have  been  established.  There  is,  however,  a  large 
class  of  children  which  is  found  midway  between  the  class 
that  is  known  as  feeble-minded  and  that  possessing  normal 
mental  ability.  The  children  belonging  to  this  class  are 
to  be  found  in  all  schools,  and  they  are  entitled  to  such 
assistance  as  will  enable  them  to  develop  and  make  use  of 
such  mental  powers  as  they  possess. 

Average  normal  ability.  The  third  and  by  far  the  largest 
of  the  classes  or  groups  into  which  ixiople  may  be  divided 


280  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

according  to  ability  is  that  of  persons  possessing  what  is 
termed  "average  normal  ability";  and  it  is  with  this  class 
that  the  school  is  primarily  concerned.  Hence  it  is  for  this 
class  that  educational  laws  are  made.  The  psychology 
taught  in  the  schools  and  colleges  deals  most  largely  with 
this  class  of  persons.  There  is  no  psychology  for  groups  one 
and  two.  Some  day  we  may  have  such  a  psychology,  but 
at  present  psychological  and  pedagogical  study  is  given 
primarily  with  reference  to  group  three.  It  is  for  this  group 
that  the  course  of  study  is  arranged  and  the  subject-matter 
is  selected.  Rules  and  regulations  for  promotions  and  for 
school  organization,  social  laws,  civic  laws,  and  in  fact  all 
laws  that  govern  human  relations  are  gauged  to  fit  the 
average  normal  person  in  group  three. 

Ability  above  the  average.  Just  as  there  are  groups  of  per- 
sons with  ability  below  the  average,  so  there  are  groups  with 
ability  above  that  of  the  average  class.  While  these  persons 
are  not  classified  as  definitely  as  those  who  are  below  the 
average  in  intellectuaUty,  they  are  usually  mentioned  as 
belonging  to  a  distinct  class  in  mental  ability  and  in  corre- 
sponding attainments.  They  are  spoken  of  as  persons  hav- 
ing exceptional  ability  or  above  the  average  in  mental 
capacity.  While  there  are  many  such  persons  in  the  aggre- 
gate, the  group  is  comparatively  small  with  reference  to 
group  three,  as  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  4  on  the  diagram. 
There  are  at  least  a  few  of  the  children  with  exceptional 
ability  to  be  found  in  every  school.  They  are  usually  de- 
scribed as  bright,  capable,  or  brilliant  pupils,  but  they 
are  often  careless,  inattentive,  and  apparently  lazy.  Their 
mental  ability  is  frequently  expressed  in  terms  of  capacity, 
rather  than  in  those  of  force,  industry,  and  results.  In  far 
too  many  cases  they  furnish  examples  of  possibilities  of 
what  might  be  accomplished  instead  of  exceptionally  grati- 
fying results  of  actual  accompUshments. 


THE  CHILD'S  ABILITY  KNOWN  AND  UTILIZED    281 

The  genius.  The  group  in  which  are  to  be  found  those 
persons  who  have  the  highest  degree  of  mental  capacity  and 
abiUty,  and  who  are  known  as  "geniuses,"  is  comparatively 
small.  In  fact  there  are  so  few  of  these  persons  that  it  is 
only  occasionally  that  one  is  discovered  in  a  school  or  a 
community.  Hence  the  genius  has  little  or  no  opportunity 
for  association  with  his  own  kind,  but  usually  must  live  in  a 
mental  world  apart  and  distinct  from  the  persons  about  him. 
As  a  child  he  usually  either  abandons  the  child  world  and 
enters  that  of  adults,  or  he  lives  his  life  alone,  so  far  as  real 
communion  of  mind  and  soul  is  concerned.  It  might  even 
happen  that  a  given  school  or  community  had  never  pro- 
duced a  real  genius,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  might  contain 
a  genius  and  yet  be  unconscious  of  the  fact.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  the  child  genius  is  regarded  as  peculiar  or  even 
dull,  because  he  does  not  take  sufficient  interest  in  the  pur- 
suits of  his  fellows  or  does  not  fit  into  the  prescribed  pro- 
gram of  the  school.  Much  ability  has  been  allowed  to  go  to 
waste,  because  it  was  not  recognized  in  time  when  it  might 
have  been  fostered  and  developed.  Such  cases  mean  loss 
where  there  might  have  been  great  gain;  loss  not  only  to  the 
individual,  but  to  the  community  and  to  the  State.  Schools 
are  provided  by  law  for  group  two.  It  is  right  that  the  State 
should  do  all  that  it  can  for  this  unfortunate  class,  but  how 
much  greater  returns  would  result  from  the  establishment  of 
schools  for  group  five,  where  exceptional  ability  might  be 
developed  and  encouraged.  The  gains  to  the  individuals  in 
such  schools  would  be  great,  but  to  the  State  they  would 
be  even  greater;  for  it  would  reap  the  benefits  of  the  training 
and  development  of  exceptional  ability,  through  the  contri- 
butions of  genius  in  invention,  in  discovery,  in  literature,  in 
the  arts,  and  in  every  field  of  human  achievement. 

Teachers  should  endeavor  to  discover  genius  in  pupils.  It 
shows  finer  discrimination  and  judgment  on  the  part  of  the 


282  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

person  who  can  discover  ability  and  genius  than  does  the 
finding  of  defects  and  the  picking-out  of  flaws.  The  person 
who  can  detect  the  movements,  the  harmonies,  and  the 
motives  in  music,  and  can  estimate  the  merit  of  a  musical 
composition  on  a  true  basis,  must  be  one  whose  musical 
sense  has  been  trained  to  a  fine  point  of  discrimination.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  person  can  perceive  only  discords  and 
glaring  mistakes,  it  is  evident  that  his  power  to  understand 
and  interpret  music  has  not  been  cultivated  to  a  very  high 
degree.  So  the  person  who  is  looking  mainly  for  the  defects 
and  failures  of  others,  and  cannot  discover  and  appreciate 
real  worth  and  ability,  is  sadly  lacking  in  a  knowledge  of 
true  values.  One  of  the  distinct  objects  which  the  teacher 
should  endeavor  to  attain  in  his  preparation  for  his  work  is 
to  learn  how  to  estimate  values  aright.  He  should  study  to 
get  into  the  proper  attitude  toward  people  in  general  and 
children  in  particular,  so  that  he  will  be  able  to  see  points 
of  value  and  to  look  for  them,  instead  of  constantly  looking 
for  defects  and  errors.  Every  teacher  should  learn  to  make 
an  ability  chart  and  should  form  the  habit  of  thinking  of 
his  pupils  in  terms  of  ability  instead  of  defects  and  weak- 
nesses. This  does  not  imply  that  teachers  should  be  blind 
to  the  mistakes  and  failures  of  their  pupils,  but  rather  that 
these  should  not  be  the  object  of  constant  attention  to  the 
exclusion  of  a  consideration  of  their  desirable  qualities  and 
accomplishments.  Defects  and  faults  must  be  recognized, 
but  it  should  be  done  in  a  spirit  of  sympathy  and  helpful- 
ness, not  in  one  of  censure  and  blame.  In  other  words,  criti- 
cism should  be  constructive,  not  destructive. 

Use  of  ability  chart  helpful.  In  a  public-school  system  of 
which  the  writer  was  at  one  time  superintendent,  teachers 
were  required  to  keep  ability  charts  on  which  they  recorded 
the  condition,  the  capacity,  and  the  accomplishments  of 
each  pupil  from  the  positive  rather  than  from  the  negative 


THE  CHILD'S  ABILITY   KNOWN  AND  UTILIZED    283 

standpoint.  The  value  of  this  was  twofold.  As  a  result  of 
the  keeping  of  such  a  record  and  the  consideration  of  the 
merits  of  pupils  which  the  preparation  of  the  record  made 
necessary,  the  teachers  unconsciously  assumed  the  right  at- 
titude toward  the  pui)ils,  and  thus  had  a  surer  ground  upon 
which  to  consider  their  interests.  Such  a  record  will  be  found 
invaluable  by  all  who  will  conscientiously  make  it.  Apart 
from  the  desirability  of  such  a  chart  for  the  reasons  already 
mentioned,  it  furnishes  a  better  means  of  estimating  a 
pupil's  growth  and  progress  than  the  usual  way  by  means  of 
the  grades  obtained  in  examinations  upon  the  subjects  of 
the  curriculum.  The  first  chart  for  a  given  class  should  be 
made  at  the  end  of  the  first  month  of  the  school  year  and  the 
next  at  about  the  middle  of  the  year.  This  will  afford  an 
opportunity  to  make  a  fair  estimate  of  the  pupil's  growth. 
The  following  is  suggestive  for  the  form  of  chart  to  be  used: 

Ability  Chart 


Report  No.  1. 

Mary  Powers, 

October  16,  1917                            Grade  IV                                      Teacher 

Pupils'  namsa 

"3 

C 

E 
C 

.c 

's 

a 
C5 

e 
0 
g 

ft. 

1 

a 

1 

8 

•2 

CO 

Remarks 

Adams,  George 

0 

3 

3 

4 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

Brada.  Clara 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

Cushman,  Anna 

0 

2 

3 

3 

2 

2 

4 

3 

2 

3 

2 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  figures  used  to  indicate  the 
different  abilities  can  also  be  used  to  indicate  health  and 
relative  ability  in  the  different  subjects.  This  chart  device 
enables  the  teacher  to  express  or  to  explain  and  define  much 
of  the  child's  ability  and  accomplishment  in  few  words  and 


284  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

with  very  little  work.  Moreover,  it  furnishes  the  kind  of 
information  that  enables  the  principal,  the  supervisors,  and 
other  persons  interested,  to  see  at  a  glance  what  has  been 
the  objective  and  the  subjective  growth  of  the  child.  Every 
teacher  is  urged  to  make  out  ability  charts  for  his  pupils ;  for 
in  addition  to  the  advantages  already  mentioned  of  such  a 
chart,  it  makes  the  teacher  more  considerate  of  the  defects 
and  weaknesses  of  his  pupils  and  more  appreciative  of  their 
ability  and  accomphshments.^ 

It  is  surprising  to  find  how  often  the  special  effort  of  the 
teacher  is  employed  in  trying  to  bring  the  two-plus  and  the 
three-minus  pupils  up  to  average  work  or  to  ability  3.  To 
this  end  pupils  are  constantly  urged  to  work  harder  at 
school,  and  to  take  work  home.  Many  teachers  fail  to  learn 
that  they  cannot  add  force  and  ability  to  the  child  machin- 
ery, but  that  all  the  teacher  really  can  do  is  to  organize  the 
forces  which  the  child  possesses  in  such  a  way  that  they 
will  yield  the  greatest  possible  returns.  The  teacher  should 
be  able  to  recognize  pupils  of  class  two  and  to  understand 
that  they  can  never  belong  to  class  three.  He  should,  how- 
ever, so  organize  the  ability  -and  the  forces  of  class  two 
pupils  as  to  realize  the  greatest  efficiency  possible  from  them. 
He  should  endeavor  to  do  the  same  with  the  pupils  of  other 
grades  of  ability  which  he  has  in  his  school. 

Ability  grouping  makes  teachers  more  just.  The  arrange- 
ment of  pupils  in  ability  groups  makes  the  question  of  pro- 
motion and  advancement  more  just.  In  this  connection  it 
must  be  remembered  that  usually  the  rules  for  grading  and 
promoting  are  made  primarily  for  pupils  of  group  three.  It  is 
not  only  unkind  and  unjust,  but  often  cruel,  as  well,  to  talk 
of  and  grade  pupils  of  group  two  in  terms  of  group  three. 
Further,  the  grading  of  all  pupils  in  terms  of  group  three 
only  occasions  a  loss  to  groups  four  and  five.  In  the  average 
school,  group  two  is  worked  to  full  ability,  group  three  is 


THE  CHILD'S  ABILITY  KNOWN  AND  UTILIZED    285 

held  up  reasonably  well  to  the  teacher's  standards;  but 
groups  four  and  five  require  no  urging  to  keep  them  up  to 
grade.  Because  of  exceptional  ability,  they  can  get  along 
without  much  effort  and  as  a  result  tliey  form  habits  of 
indifference  and  often  become  conceited.  If  all  pupils  were 
obliged  to  work  up  to  their  ability,  a  wonderful  saving  of 
energy  and  natural  gifts  would  be  effected. 

Exceptional  ability  often  neglected.  Every  supervisor  or 
principal  of  a  graded  school  can  recall  cases  of  neglected 
abihty  that  came  under  his  notice.  Many  persons  can  cite 
instances  of  pupils  with  great  latent  ability  that  were  never 
discovered  by  the  teachers;  and  for  that  reason  they  passed 
in  and  out  of  school  without  receiving  the  direction,  which 
if  rightly  given  would  have  made  them  geniuses.  Among 
the  many  instances  of  this  kind  which  might  be  cited,  one 
is  given  of  the  failure  to  recognize  a  school  boy's  genius.  It 
happened  that  a  boy,  who  had  not  attended  school  until  he 
was  nearly  twelve  years  of  age,  presented  himself  for  enroll- 
ment at  the  opening  of  the  school  year  in  September.  Until 
this  time  he  had  received  instruction  at  home,  principally 
from  his  mother,  who  was  a  woman  of  education  and  refine- 
ment. The  boy's  father  was  a  college  graduate,  and  all  of 
the  boy's  associations  were  those  of  culture.  The  principal 
of  the  school,  after  questioning  the  boy  regarding  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  common  branches,  decided  that  he  was  quali- 
fied to  enter  the  eighth  grade,  but  was  soon  disappointed  to 
learn  that  he  was  not  getting  along  well  with  his  teacher 
and  that  he  would  not  apply  himself  to  the  tasks  given  him. 
He  had  not  learned  the  habits  of  order  and  routine  which 
the  school  required,  and  the  teacher  complained  that  he 
was  indifferent  and  inattentive  in  the  recitation.  All  this 
annoyed  the  teacher  and  she  soon  came  to  consider  him  a 
very  undesirable  pupil.  One  day  it  happened  that  the  topic 
of  the  nature  lesson  was  the  crow.   The  teacher  prepared 


286  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

the  lesson  with  usual  care,  but  did  not  take  the  trouble  to 
get  absolute  information  on  all  points.  During  the  course  of 
the  lesson  the  new  pupil  corrected  her  on  several  points,  and 
this  increased  her  dislike  for  him.  Had  she  known  that  he 
was  a  boy  naturalist  and  that  he  knew  far  more  about  the 
subject  from  actual  observation  than  she  had  learned  from 
books,  she  would  have  respected  his  information  instead  of 
rebuking  him  for  what  she  considered  impertinence. 

This  boy  had  studied  insect,  bird,  and  animal  life  from 
the  time  he  was  able  to  run  about  his  father's  garden.  Later 
he  had  roamed  the  fields  and  the  woods  about  the  town 
searching  for  specimens  of  various  kinds.  His  excursions 
were  frequently  the  cause  of  some  discomfort  to  the  family, 
for  he  would  often  return  from  one  of  his  self-appointed 
trips  ^vdth  a  variety  of  sf>ecimens;  perhaps  a  snake  in  one 
pocket,  a  frog  in  another,  and  birds'  eggs  in  his  hat.  His 
mother  was  often  in  despair  at  the  appearance  of  his  cloth- 
ing, and  his  little  sister  was  afraid  to  go  into  his  room  alone 
lest  she  might  accidentally  step  upon  some  of  his  crawling 
specimens  or  see  them  poking  their  heads  out  of  partly 
opened  commode  drawers.  At  the  time  that  he  was  the 
source  of  so  much  annoyance  to  his  teacher,  he  had  in  his 
room  at  home  one  of  the  finest  collections  of  birds'  eggs  in 
the  State  in  which  he  lived.  He  was  in  correspondence  with 
two  or  three  college  professors  upon  matters  pertaining  to 
his  collections.  This  boy  was  a  genius,  but  neither  his  par- 
ents, although  educated  people,  nor  his  teacher,  had  dis- 
covered the  fact. 

Later  he  passed  from  the  eighth  grade  into  the  high  school. 
The  superintendent  discovered  the  boy's  talent  and  knowl- 
edge and  decided  that  they  could  be  developed  and  at  the 
same  time  be  made  valuable  to  the  school  by  allowing  the 
boy  to  build  up  a  biological  collection.  Before  the  open- 
ing of  school  the  following  September,  this  superintendent 


THE  CHILD'S  ABILITY  KNOWN  AND  UTILIZED    287 

went  to  a  new  field  and  his  place  was  taken  by  one  who  did 
not  discover  the  bent  of  the  boy's  genius,  but  thought  of 
him  only  as  a  pupil  to  be  fitted  into  the  school  machinery 
and  made  to  conform  to  an  ironclad  course  of  study.  As  a 
result  the  boy  was  forced  out  of  school  long  before  the  year 
was  over,  and  his  talents  and  his  possibiUties  were  lost  to  the 
community  and  to  the  State.  Moreover,  he  was  classed, 
much  to  the  humiliation  of  his  parents,  as  a  boy  who  could 
not  get  along  with  his  teachers,  and  for  years  he  was  regarded 
as  "no  good"  by  the  community.  Had  this  boy's  teacher 
kept  an  ability  chart,  such  as  is  suggested  here,  this  blunder 
would  not  have  been  made,  for  he  would  have  been  estimated 
according  to  his  particular  gifts  and  not  in  terms  of  mathe- 
matics and  Latin  verbs. 

Unfortunately  this  is  not  an  isolated  case.  Undoubtedly 
many  schools  could  furnish  a  similar  example  of  an  undis- 
covered genius  that  has  been  lost  to  itself  and  to  the  com- 
munity because  of  lack  of  recognition  and  the  proper  direc- 
tion. Many  unrecognized  geniuses  never  do  find  their  proper 
places  and  there  is  much  waste  and  loss  to  themselves  and 
to  all  concerned,  because  no  one  is  wise  enough  to  discover 
them.  If  the  spirit  of  the  suggestions  here  offered  were  more 
generally  carried  out  in  actual  practice,  the  child  genius 
would  be  discovered  and  the  latent  ability  of  many  a  pupil 
would  thus  be  saved  to  his  own  advantage  and  to  that  of  his 
community. 

Injustice  often  results  from  wrong  evaluation  of  ability. 
Teachers  often  do  not  properly  evaluate  work,  for  it  is  done 
in  terms  of  the  passing  mark,  and  not  in  terms  of  relative 
abihty.  Because  of  this,  injustice  is  inflicted  upon  pupils 
and  real  injury  follows.  It  frequently  happens  that  a  pupil 
belonging  to  class  two  does  relatively  more  than  a  pupil 
belonging  to  class  three  or  four;  and  yet  he  fails  where  they 
succeed.    As  an  example,  suppose  that  the  maximum  result 


288  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

in  an  examination  test  is  65  per  cent  for  a  pupil  of  class  two, 
85  per  cent  for  a  pupil  of  class  three,  95  per  cent  for  a  pupil 
of  class  four,  and  that  the  passing  mark  is  75.  The  pupil  of 
class  two,  because  of  the  special  effort  made  to  bring  him  up 
to  class  three,  gains  a  mark  of  65,  which  represents  the  maxi- 
mum of  his  ability.  The  pupils  of  classes  three  and  four, 
receiving  marks  above  the  75  per  cent  required  to  pass  the 
test,  succeed  where  the  class  two  child  fails,  although  in 
terms  of  his  ability  he  has  accomplished  more  than  either 
of  the  others.  He  is  ranked  as  a  failure  when  he  should  have 
received  commendation  and  encouragement  for  his  honest 
effort.  In  this  case  he  should  have  been  judged  in  terms  of 
his  ability  and  have  been  allowed  to  pass  on  in  his  grade. 
He  will  always  belong  to  class  two  and  it  is  as  a  class  two 
child  that  he  should  be  judged  and  graded.  Nothing  is 
gained  by  keeping  him  another  year  at  the  work  in  which 
his  best  effort  could  not  bring  him  up  to  the  standing  of  the 
class  three  pupils.  Such  a  method  of  promotion  will  only 
lead  to  discouragement  and  eventual  dishke  of  school,  with 
the  early  escape  from  it.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  such  a 
practice  is  both  unjust  and  harmful.  Many  of  the  brav- 
est souls  in  school  are  the  two-  and  the  three-minus  pupils. 
They  often  stand  up  under  discouragement  and  destruc- 
tive criticism  that  other  persons  and  even  their  teachers 
would  resent. 

Individual  ability  varies  in  different  subjects.  The  ability 
chart  of  a  given  child  will  reveal  the  fact  that  his  aptitude 
for  the  various  subjects  of  the  curriculum  does  not  run  in 
a  straight  line,  but  rather  in  a  curved  one.  In  other  words, 
his  ability  shows  strength  in  some  lines  and  weakness  in 
others.  This  condition  is  general  enough  to  make  it  impor- 
tant in  considering  the  work  of  any  pupil  when  his  ability 
chart  is  unknown.  Yet  we  find  the  arbitrary  rule  for  pro- 
motion in  force  and  many  pupils  are  not  advanced  to  the 


THE  CHILD'S  ABILITY  KNOWN  AND  UTILIZED    289 

next  grade  at  the  end  of  the  year's  work  because  they  did 
not  get  the  required  passing  mark  in  some  subject.  It  is 
surprising  how  general  this  practice  is,  although  the  injus- 
tice of  it  and  the  harm  which  it  often  causes  will  be  appar- 
ent to  any  one  who  will  consider  the  matter  intelligently.  A 
concrete  case  will  emphasize  the  folly  and  the  injustice  of 
this  custom. 

Illustration.  A  girl  from  a  humble  home  entered  the  high 
school.  She  was  plain  and  poorly  dressed.  She  was  even 
untidy  in  appearance  and  habits  at  the  beginning  of  her 
course.  During  her  second  year  in  the  school  she  came  under 
the  influence  of  two  noble  women  and  as  a  result  she  became 
a  changed  person.  She  became  neat  in  appearance,  and 
while  her  clothes  were  not  much  more  expensive  than  at 
first,  they  showed  good  taste  in  selection  and  style.  She 
became  more  industrious,  and  though  she  did  not  possess 
marked  ability,  her  conscientious  effort  showed  itself  in  the 
improvement  in  her  classes.  In  short,  she  showed  more  real 
growth  and  development  than  any  other  girl  in  her  class. 
She  passed  all  her  examinations  until  the  end  of  the  third 
year.  Then  she  failed  in  geometry  and  was  required  to  take 
the  subject  over  again  the  following  year.  At  the  end  of 
this  year  she  received  upon  examination  only  70  per  cent, 
the  same  mark  she  had  received  the  year  before.  She  was  a 
70  per  cent  pupil  in  terms  of  geometry^  and  though  she 
worked  well  up  to  her  ability,  she  could  not  go  beyond  this 
point.  When  the  time  came  for  deciding  upon  her  gradua- 
tion every  member  of  the  faculty  of  twenty  teachers  voted 
no,  for  the  reason  that  the  girl  had  "  not  passed  "  in  geom- 
etry. Fortunately  for  the  pupil  in  this  case,  the  superintend- 
ent took  a  broader  view  of  the  matter  and  insisted  that  the 
girl  be  allowed  to  graduate  with  her  class.  Unhappily,  there 
are  many  cases  of  this  kind,  with  no  one  to  stand  between  the 
unfortunate  victim  and  the  adherents  of  a  machine  system. 


290  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

Special  classes  for  special  ability.  It  is  not  always  possible 
to  provide  classes  for  all  grades  of  ability  that  may  be  found 
in  a  school,  but  with  skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  some 
provision  may  be  made  for  providing  all  who  have  special 
ability  with  some  form  of  useful  activity  in  which  they  may 
find  an  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  their  particular  tal- 
ents. A  case  of  this  kind  may  be  cited  in  which  a  teacher 
recognized  the  special  ability  of  a  pupil  in  a  country  school. 
This  boy  soon  outdistanced  his  class  in  the  regular  work  of 
the  school,  and  the  teacher  encouraged  him  to  take  up  ad- 
vanced studies,  often  remaining  after  the  close  of  school  to 
hear  him  recite.  In  this  way  the  pupil  mastered  elemen- 
tary algebra,  geometry,  and  other  high-school  studies.  This 
gave  him  a  desire  to  go  further  and  at  the  advice  of  the 
teacher,  he  entered  the  high  school  in  a  near-by  town.  From 
there  he  went  to  the  state  university  from  which  he  gradu- 
ated with  honor.  He  then  took  up  the  study  of  law,  and 
within  ten  years  after  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  he  had  so 
distinguished  himself  that  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  a 
United  States  District  Court. 

The  pupils  of  groups  four  and  five  should  be  given  enough 
work  to  exercise  their  powers.  The  wise  teacher  will  see 
that  the  work  assigned  is  of  a  kind  to  interest  the  pupil 
and  to  give  an  opportunity  for  the  development  and  growth 
of  his  particular  talent.  If  this  is  done  these  special  pupils 
will  be  happy  and  industrious  instead  of  being  indifferent 
and  inattentive  to  the  school  routine,  as  is  so  often  the  case. 
So  far  as  possible  every  pupil  should  be  encouraged  and  given 
the  opportunity  to  work  up  to  his  ability. 

Encouragement  through  doing  well.  A  pupil  usually 
receives  his  greatest  encouragement  for  effort  in  the  ap- 
proval on  the  part  of  his  teacher  of  his  taste  for  right 
things  or  of  the  work  which  he  does  best.  This  is  so  uni- 
versal that  the  teacher  should  make  a  careful  study  of  his 


THE  CHILD'S  ABILITY  KNOWN  AND  UTILIZED    291 

ability  charts  in  order  to  keep  informed  regarding  the  Hkes 
and  the  dislikes  and  the  special  interests  of  his  pupils. 
Sometimes  the  pupil's  chief  interest  is  found  to  lie  outside 
of  the  work  of  the  school,  and  very  often  along  lines  that  the 
teacher  can  supplement,  especially  when  the  latter  is  well 
informed  and  resourceful.  The  ability  on  the  part  of  the 
instructor  in  finding  out  the  pupil's  bent  and  taste  is  one 
of  the  surest  evidences  of  the  true  teacher.  The  reply  of  a 
teacher,  when  asked  to  take  a  class  in  the  night  school,  ex- 
pressed the  true  teacher's  attitude  toward  ability  needs. 
She  said,  "  I  need  all  my  time  to  prepare  work  to  feed  and 
satisfy  the  ability  requirements  of  my  pupils."  She  was 
the  teacher  of  a  fifth  grade  and  a  woman  of  education  and 
of  long  experience.  Many  persons  in  her  place  would  have 
thought  there  was  no  further  necessity  to  prepare  for  the 
daily  work.  In  fact,  there  were  several  young  teachers  in 
their  first  or  second  years  in  the  same  school  who  had  asked 
for  night  school  positions.  The  superintendent  in  relating 
the  incident  said  that  this  woman  was  one  of  the  best 
teachers  he  ever  had,  and  her  remark,  as  just  quoted,  shows 
that  she  had  the  heart  and  the  vision  of  the  great  teacher. 
Her  co-workers  who  thought  it  was  not  necessary  to  spend 
their  evenings  in  study  had  not  yet  come  into  the  measure 
and  stature  of  real  teachers. 

The  value  of  ability  grading  was  shown  in  the  placement 
of  a  pupil  who  belonged  to  group  two  in  arithmetic  and 
science,  but  to  group  five  in  the  ability  to  construct  and 
describe  dramatic  situations.  A  wise  supervisor  saw  her 
ability  and  placed  her  in  the  eighth  grade  for  reading  and 
language,  in  the  fourth  grade  for  arithmetic  work,  and  in  the 
sixth  grade  for  history  and  geography.  In  the  one  line  she 
had  marked  ability,  and  it  would  have  been  most  unwise 
to  have  forced  her  to  conform  to  the  regular  grading  of 
the  school.    She  was  happy  in  the  exercise  of  her  natural 


292  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

ability,  and  in  a  few  years  showed  the  wisdom  of  the  plan 
adopted  by  her  teachers,  by  winning  the  prize  offered 
by  a  well-known  publishing  house  for  the  best  novel  sub- 
mitted. 

Child's  interest  often  reveals  ability.  The  encourage- 
ment and  fostering  of  the  special  interest  which  the  child 
evinces  in  something  apart  from  his  regular  school  work 
may  prove  the  avenue  to  his  soul.  The  modern  movement 
of  the  corn  club,  the  tomato  canning  club,  and  other  juve- 
nile organizations  furnishes  proof  of  the  truth  of  this  state- 
ment. Sometimes  the  child's  interest  in  a  particular  object 
will  show  the  teacher  the  bent  of  his  genius.  For  example, 
a  child  once  brought  a  picture  from  her  home  to  show  the 
teacher.  The  latter  expressed  pleasure  and  the  following 
day  the  child  brought  another  and  so  on  throughout  the 
first  month  of  school.  The  teacher  became  convinced  that 
the  child's  chief  interest  was  in  form  and  color  as  repre- 
sented in  the  pictures,  and  she  wisely  acted  upon  the  sug- 
gestion thus  offered.  The  child  was  of  class  two  in  every- 
thing except  the  ability  to  understand  the  language  of  the 
picture.  She  could  not  read  the  printed  page,  but  she  could 
read  the  picture.  The  teacher  was  wise  enough  to  make  use 
of  this  love  of  pictures  to  secure  the  child's  confidence  and 
to  interest  her  in  words,  with  the  result  that  before  the  year 
was  over,  the  child  could  read  as  well  as  the  average  pupil 
in  her  grade. 

Ability  of  a  child  often  revealed  by  accident.  Many  illus- 
trations might  be  given  to  show  how  often  the  merest  acci- 
dent reveals  the  interest  and  ability  of  a  pupil,  who  per- 
haps until  then  has  been  a  source  of  trouble  and  vexation. 
A  boy,  who  had  been  sent  to  the  superintendent  for  a  mis- 
demeanor, came  trembling  into  the  presence  of  the  head  of 
the  school  whom  he  viewed  w'lih  awe  and  terror.  The  sui)er- 
intendcnt  asked  in  a  kindly  tone  why  he  had  been  sent, 


THE  CHILD'S  ABILITY  KNOWN  AND  UTILIZED     293 

and  the  child  held  out  a  whistle  which  he  had  whittled  out 
of  a  piece  of  crayon.  It  had  been  skillfully  done  and  the 
fact  impressed  the  sui)erintendent.  So,  instead  of  punish- 
ing the  boy,  as  the  teacher  who  had  sent  the  culprit  ex- 
pected he  would,  he  talked  kindly  to  the  little  fellow  about 
carving.  The  fact  that  the  boy  had  made  the  whistle  when 
he  should  have  been  working  problems  in  arithmetic  did 
not  appear  to  the  superintendent  to  be  the  grave  offense 
which  the  teacher  had  regarded  it.  He  saw  with  a  wider 
vision  into  the  heart  of  the  boy,  and  with  the  crayon  whistle 
in  his  hand  he  spoke  words  of  interest  and  encouragement 
to  the  child,  which  determined  the  whole  trend  of  the  boy's 
after  life.  The  teacher  had  humiliated  the  boy  by  calling 
him  lazy  and  disobedient,  and  then  had  added  to  this  humi- 
liation by  sending  him  in  disgrace  to  the  suj^erintendent's 
office.  That  teacher  needed  an  ability  chart  to  show  her 
how  to  estimate  her  pupils.  If  she  had  possessed  one,  how 
much  pain  and  humiliation  her  pupils  might  have  escaped 
and  how  much  more  wisely  she  might  have  managed  their 
respective  needs.  Every  child  reveals  his  true  self  many 
times  during  the  course  of  a  school  term,  and  the  teacher 
should  be  keen  enough  to  detect  and  wise  enough  to  make 
use  of  these  revelations. 

The  negative  should  be  avoided.  Mental  growth  is  al- 
ways on  the  positive,  constructive  side,  but  never  on  the 
negative.  For  this  reason  the  teacher  should  carefully 
avoid  the  use  of  the  word  don't.  Perhaps  no  other  word  in 
our  language  has  been  more  destructive  of  the  child's  nat- 
ural interest  and  soul  hungers  than  the  word  dont.  It  is  a 
force  on  the  side  of  prohibition  rather  than  on  that  of  direc- 
tion. It  is  a  check  to  activity  when  activity  should  be  en- 
couraged under  proper  guidance.  Moreover,  it  discourages 
activity  at  the  very  time  when  the  child's  whole  being  is 
crying  out  for  action,  when  the  self  is  seeking  expression 


294  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

either  consciously  or  unconsciously  in  the  doing  of  some- 
tliing.  Instead  of  discouraging  activity  at  this  important 
period  in  child  growth,  the  teacher,  and  the  parent  also, 
should  take  advantage  of  this  natural  desire  for  it  and  direct 
it  along  proper  lines,  that  it  may  be  made  an  aid  in  the 
educating  process  rather  than  a  hindrance. 

Again,  a  person  cannot  develop  a  love  of  harmony  while 
dwelling  in  a  realm  of  discord;  neither  can  he  have  an  aver- 
sion for  discords  until  he  has  developed  some  love  for  har- 
mony. A  person  will  not  hate  lying  until  he  begins  to  under- 
stand and  value  honesty  and  truth.  A  person  will  not  hate 
cowardice  until  he  begins  to  admire  bravery.  These  and 
similar  self-evident  facts  furnish  still  further  proof  that 
growth  always  takes  place  on  the  positive  rather  than  on 
the  negative  side.  For  this  reason  the  teacher  and  all  who 
are  directly  concerned  with  the  education  of  the  young 
should  strive  for  activity  on  the  positive  side  and  eliminate 
so  far  as  possible  the  negative  side,  the  donts  of  the  home 
and  the  school.  If  the  right  kind  of  likes  can  be  implanted 
in  the  mind  of  the  child,  he  will  naturally  form  the  proper 
kind  of  dislikes. 

Desirable  likes  a  factor  in  ability.  The  possession  of  a 
large  number  of  the  proper  kind  of  likes  is  an  important 
factor  in  ability,  particularly  when  it  is  thought  of  in  terms 
of  social  service,  as  it  expresses  itself  in  our  relations  with 
other  people.  These  likes  determine  one's  attitude  toward 
the  church,  the  people  in  the  community,  the  members  of 
one's  family,  and  to  all  with  whom  one  comes  into  relation. 
They  also  determine  many  of  one's  individual  characteris- 
tics, and  when  a  person's  likes  are  of  the  right  kind,  he  is 
saved  many  a  struggle.  In  trying  to  aid  in  the  building 
up  of  individual  capacity,  the  incentive  for  right,  positive 
growth  must  be  given.  In  this  way  the  liking  for  the 
desirable  rather  than  the  undesirable  things  will  be  given 


THE  CHILD'S  ABILITY  KNOWN  AND  UTILIZED    295 

and  these  will  become  real  anchors  to  the  soul  through  the 
establishment  of  correct  tendencies  and  habits. 

Every  one  has  some  ability.  From  the  foregoing  dis- 
cussion it  has  been  shown  that  ability  is  the  power  of  an 
individual  to  do  a  particular  thing  well.  As  the  majority  of 
persons  have  several  abilities,  or  the  ability  to  do  several  dif- 
ferent things,  the  word  might  correctly  be  used  in  the  plural. 
For  the  reason  that  it  is  customary  to  value  a  person  in 
terms  of  some  distinct  and  comparatively  rare  excellence 
which  he  may  possess,  it  is  well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  ability  is  not  limited  to  a  few  exalted  lines  of  activity, 
but  that  it  may  be  expressed  in  terms  of  the  humblest  and 
most  common  activities.  For  example,  a  person  who  can 
invent  a  useful  machine,  write  a  good  poem,  play  or  sing 
exceptionally  well,  is  spoken  of  as  having  ability,  no  mat- 
ter how  ineflBcient  he  may  be  in  other  activities.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  many  persons  who  do  a  number  of 
things  exceptionally  well,  who  are  regarded  as  having  only 
ordinary  ability,  for  the  reason  that  their  special  talents  are 
used  in  doing  things  not  considered  of  particular  distinction. 
A  man  may  have  marked  ability  for  designing  and  con- 
structing buildings,  and  at  the  same  time  he  may  have  spe- 
cial ability  as  a  member  of  the  city  council  and  be  an  eflBcient 
worker  in  his  church.  He  thus  has  three  distinct  abilities 
and  possibly  several  others.  Therefore,  in  the  sum  total, 
the  ability  or  the  abilities  of  this  man  may  exceed  that  of 
the  writer,  the  inventor,  or  the  singer. 

Teachers  must  have  varied  abilities.  The  teacher  to  be 
a  success  must  be  a  person  of  varied,  or  of  many  abilities, 
for  the  reason  that  he  must  be  able  to  do  efifective  work  in  a 
number  of  different  situations.  A  personal  ability  chart  for 
the  teacher,  himself,  is  an  excellent  means  by  which  he  may 
take  an  inventory,  as  it  were,  of  his  o^vti  qualifications  for 
his  work,  and  it  may  help  him  to  discover  the  abilities  which 


296 


THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 


he  ought  to  cultivate.  It  may  require  some  courage  to  pre- 
pare such  a  chart  of  one's  self,  but  every  teacher  should  do 
so,  at  least  once  a  year.  The  following  is  suggestive  for  the 
study  of  one's  own  abilities  and  attainments :  — 

Personal  Ability  Chart  for  Self-Study 


Names  of  abilities 

8 

Names  of  abilities 

V. 

1 

O 

t*. 

a. 

cS* 

1 

"^ 

Menial  : 

Teaching  vocation : 

1.  Reciting  poetry 

1.  Knowledge  of  subject 

2.  Knowledge  of  Bible 

2.  Knowledge  of  laws  of 

3.  Scholarship 

teaching 

4.  Composition 

3.  Health 

6.  Conversation 

4.  Social  habits  —  are 

6.  Listening 

they  consistent  with 

7.  Thinking 

teaching 

8.  General  information 

5.  Power  to  discipline 

6.  Comprehension  of 

Social  : 

school  functions 

1.  Bearing  in  society 

7.  An  aim  for  education 

*.  Table  manners 

8.  Knowledge  of  other 

8.  Street  manners 

people's  work 

4.  Greiting  people 

9.  Power  to  use  good 

5.  Leaving  people 

language 

C.  Entertaining  guests 
7.  Introductions 

10.  Preparation  for  teach- 

ing 

11.  Child  sympathy 

12.  Personal  bearing 

8.  Correct  dress 

General : 

1.  Manual 

2.  Intellectual 

List  of  things 

13.  Voice 

can  do  best 

14    Knowledge  of  children 

Various  elements  in  ability.  A  person's  ability  consists  of 
the  combination  and  organization  of  all  his  forces,  physical, 
mental,  moral,  and  social.  Health  is  a  very  important  factor 
in  ability  to  do  or  execute,  for  without  health  and  the 
proper  physical  condition,  one  has  not  the  energy  for  great 
effort.  Knowledge  is  another  great  factor  in  ability,  and  the 
absence  of  it  renders  a  person  helpless  and  ineffective  in 
many  situations.  Habits  of  industry  and  the  right  use  of 
time  are  both  related  and  important  considerations  in  the 
general  capacity  to  do  things  and  to  achieve  desired  results 
in  the  discharge  of  common  duties.  Skill  in  performing 
the  various  tasks  and  duties  that  are  a  part  of  everyday  life 


THE  CHILD'S  ABILITY  KNOWN  AND  UTILIZED    297 

is  often  quite  as  important  as  skill  in  the  regular  vocation. 
The  habit  of  succeeding  in  what  one  undertakes  reinforces 
ability.  Courage,  hope,  self-confidence,  perseverance,  a 
spirit  of  service,  and  many  other  elements  enter  into  the 
composition  of  a  person's  ability.  Teachers  and  parents 
should  more  generally  understand  what  constitutes  ability, 
and  in  the  development  of  the  powers  of  the  child  they 
should  endeavor  to  inculcate  and  foster  in  the  proper  pro- 
portions those  elements  that  contribute  to  ability,  in  order 
that  a  desirable  and  effective  personality  may  result. 

Ability  proves  itself  in  service.  Real  ability  proves  itself 
in  service  of  some  kind  and  in  actual  accomplishments.  It 
shows  itself  in  the  magnitude  and  quality  of  the  work  done 
and  in  the  results  attained.  It  proves  itself  in  a  particular 
way  in  the  citizenship  relations  and  in  the  attitude  of  the 
individual  toward  community  work  and  problems.  It  shows 
itself  in  the  home  and  in  the  social  organizations  of  the  com- 
munity in  which  the  person  lives.  Ability  is  constructive; 
hence  should  not  be  repressed,  but  should  be  allowed  to 
express  itself  in  order  that  it  may  prove  a  benefit  to  society. 
Ability  is  not  merely  force  or  power.  It  embraces  more  than 
these.  An  individual's  abilities  determine  his  power  to  do, 
and  when  these  abilities  are  properly  developed,  they  be- 
come a  real  power  for  effective  service. 

Ability  conserved.  The  teacher  should  discover  the  abil- 
ity of  each  pupil  that  comes  under  his  observation,  and  he 
should  deal  with  each  case  according  to  its  requirements. 
In  every  instance  he  should  try  to  make  the  most  of  wliat- 
ever  ability  the  pupil  may  have,  but  at  the  same  time  he 
should  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  it  is  futile  to  try  to 
force  the  child's  ability  beyond  what  it  is  able  to  accom- 
plish. Another  consideration  which  the  teacher  should  bear 
in  mind  is  that  while  giving  an  undue  proportion  of  time  and 
effort  to  backward  pupils  he  may  be  neglecting  those  of 


298  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACmNG 

greater  ability  whose  gifts  are  going  to  waste  from  lack  of 
properly  directed  exercise.  The  person  who  discovers  ge- 
nius in  another,  or  is  the  means  of  calling  it  into  activity  for 
the  benefit  of  society,  performs  a  real  service  to  the  com- 
munity and  to  the  State  that  profits  by  its  contributions. 
If  teachers  more  generally  understood  this  fact  and  their 
own  responsibility  in  the  matter,  they  would  give  more  at- 
tention to  trying  to  find  out  the  latent  ability  of  their  pupils 
and  to  developing  it,  instead  of  concentrating  all  their  effort 
upon  teaching  a  prescribed  amount  of  objective  knowledge. 
Then  the  school  would  become  in  reality  a  finding  and  de- 
veloping place  of  child  ability. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Individuality,  Thorndike. 

Education,  Thorndike,  pp.  67-70. 

Teacher's  Philosophy  In  and  Out  of  School,  Hyde. 

Moral  Principles  in  Education,  Dewey. 

How  to  Teach,  Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  pp.  151-71. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  the  names  of  five  men  and  five  women  and  after  each  write  one 
sentence  that  gives  the  dominant  characteristic  of  the  person. 

2.  Write  the  names  of  five  pupils  who  are  regarded  as  smart,  capable. 
Compare  them  with  the  pupils  who  are  regarded  as  the  best  pupils. 
Compare  dress,  work,  social  life,  temperament,  and  any  other  elements 
of  personality. 

3.  Going  back  over  your  experience  recall  the  pupils  that  have  received 
most  help  from  the  teacher.  Suppose  you  could  have  had  as  much 
special  push  and  help  as  you  have  known  others  to  receive,  would  it 
have  meant  anything  to  you?  State  how  it  would. 

4.  Make  out  your  own  ability  chart  as  suggested  on  page  296.  Make  out 
an  ability  chart  for  some  one  else  in  your  home. 

6.  Have  a  friend  make  out  your  ability  chart  and  compare  it  with  the 

one  you  have  made  yourself. 
6.  Discuss  some  persons  who  have  little  ability  that  have  succeeded. 

Also  persons  of  great  ability  who  have  failed.  Account  for  the  differ- 


THE  CHILD'S  ABILITY  KNOWN  AND  UTILIZED    299 

7.  State  what  you  would  do  with  the  student  named  here.  Harry  Gray 
passed  60  in  arithmetic,  70  in  history,  85  in  penmanship,  and  in  all 
other  subjects  his  work  was  above  85;  the  passing  mark  was  75. 

8.  What  would  you  do  in  each  of  the  following  cases?  A  worked  very 
hard  and  was  regular  in  attendance  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  aver- 
aged 68.  B  was  inefficient  in  his  work,  was  absent  occasionally,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  year  averaged  68.  The  passing  mark  was  7i.  Give 
reasons  for  your  decision. 

9.  "I  think  that  a  person  should  be  permitted  to  put  his  whole  time  on 
the  subject  he  likes  and  in  which  he  can  do  best."  What  are  your  views 
on  this  statement? 

10.  Name  all  the  good  points  you  can  about  a  popular  man  and  woman 
of  your  home  community.  Name  all  the  good  points  you  can  about 
an  unpopular  man  and  woman  of  your  town. 

11.  "I  get  as  much  delight  in  finding  beauty  and  power  in  my  friends  as 
I  do  in  finding  beauty  in  flowers  and  books  and  music.  I  get  joy  in 
finding  good  in  all  persons  whom  I  meet."   Discuss  this  statement. 

12.  "She  was  a  great  teacher.  She  knew  just  what  each  child  could  do, 
and  she  saw  that  he  did  it."  Discuss  other  types  of  teachers  in  con- 
nection with  this  statement. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  FUNDAMENTAL  CONCEPT 

All  matter  governed  by  fixed  principles.  It  was  shown  in 
a  previous  chapter  that  man's  mental  and  spiritual  growth 
is  dependent  upon  the  increase  and  enlargement  of  his  con- 
cepts. It  is  also  clear  that  the  enlargement  of  the  con- 
cepts which  he  already  has  and  the  addition  of  new  ones, 
bring  him  into  a  more  complete  understanding  of  and 
unity  with  the  world  about  him.  As  a  result  of  his  enlarged 
understanding  and  by  means  of  his  superior  intelligence, 
his  power  over  the  physical  world  is  increased.  This  infu- 
sion into  his  thought  of  the  meaning  and  significance  of  the 
universe  of  which  he  is  a  part  also  enlarges  his  spiritual  con- 
ceptions and  enriches  his  character.  It  is  through  the  ob- 
servation and  study  of  life  and  matter  that  he  may  gain  an 
understanding  of  his  relation  to  all  forms  of  life,  as  one  of  the 
expressions  of  the  Divine  Intelhgence,  and  thus  at  last  ar- 
rive at  self-realization. 

From  the  close  observance  of  nature  in  all  its  forms  and 
from  the  intelligent  study  of  the  revelations  of  science  as 
presented  by  those  who  have  devoted  their  lives  to  inves- 
tigation and  study,  man  ^dll  learn  two  things:  first,  he  will 
learn  the  interesting  and  important  fact  that  there  are 
definite  laws  and  principles  which  underly  all  creation  and 
evolution;  and,  second,  he  will  learn  that  these  principles 
govern  and  control  all  life.  INIoreover,  he  will  find  from  his 
study  and  research  that  all  matter  is  governed  by  fixed 
principles  and  is  controlled  in  all  its  movements  by  some 
unseen  power  as  certainly  as  is  the  hand  under  the  will  of 
man. 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  CONCEPT  301 

Change  of  form  in  inorganic  matter  determined  and  con- 
trolled by  fixed  laws.  There  is  in  every  department  of  crea- 
tion some  distinctive  and  definite  law  which  governs  and 
characterizes  that  department.  The  laws  which  control 
the  phenomena  of  any  general  class  of  matter  may  be  dis- 
covered by  careful  study  of  the  phenomena  of  different 
substances  belonging  to  that  class.  This  is  illustrated  in 
an  experience  as  related  by  a  scientist.  He  says,  "  When  I 
was  a  child  I  was  once  showTi  a  large  quartz  crystal.  It  was 
tlie  first  time  that  I  had  seen  a  specimen  of  this  form  of  mat- 
ter, and  I  regarded  it  with  curiosity  and  wonder.  After  this, 
I  occasionally  saw  other  crystals,  and  in  each  case,  my  in- 
terest was  as  keen  as  when  I  saw  the  first  one.  In  fact, 
throughout  my  childhood,  crystals  were  to  me  objects  of 
interest  and  admiration.  They  were  interesting,  not  only 
because  of  their  beauty  and  the  peculiarity  of  their  forma- 
tion, but  also  for  the  reason  that  they  were  unusual  or  un- 
common in  my  childhood  experience.  Later,  in  my  study  of 
science,  I  was  surprised  to  find  that  almost  all  substances 
that  change  from  the  liquid  to  the  soHd  form  crystallize  dur- 
ing the  process  of  change;  and  that  crystalhzation  is  not  an 
unusual  form  of  matter  as  I  had  supposed,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, a  very  common  form.  The  discovery  of  this  scien- 
tific law  caused  me  great  surprise  at  first,  and  so  aroused  my 
desire  to  prove  the  truth  of  it  that  I  made  many  investiga- 
tions and  experiments  to  test  the  universality  of  it.  These 
researches  and  investigations  not  only  established  the  val- 
idity of  the  law,  but  also  enlarged  my  own  conception  of 
matter  and  its  production." 

Growth  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  governed  by  fixed  laws. 
Growth  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  conlrollod  by  principles 
that  are  as  definite  and  as  constant  as  those  which  govern 
the  crystallization  of  matter  in  the  mineral  kingdom.  Under 
the  control  of  these  principles,  leaf,  branch,  stem,  flower. 


S02  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

fruit,  and  all  the  various  parts  of  the  plant  p)erform  their 
different  functions  in  the  growth  of  the  plant.  At  the  same 
time  and  in  accordance  with  the  laws  that  regulate  growth 
in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  they  all  unite  to  enable  the  en- 
tire plant  to  perform  its  essential  function,  the  preservation 
and  reproduction  of  its  species.  Any  one  can  easily  verify 
the  truth  of  this  statement  and  observe  the  uniformity  of 
method  in  which  gro\\i:h  takes  place  by  planting  some  seeds 
of  different  plants  and  watching  their  germination  and 
growth  until  seed  is  again  produced.  These  established  and 
unyielding  laws  by  which  the  various  parts  of  the  plant  per- 
form their  functions  show  marked  uniformity  in  all  varie- 
ties of  life  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  This  uniformity  is 
equally  apparent  in  the  case  of  the  tiny  violet  or  the  showy 
golden  rod  that  blooms  by  the  country  roadside,  or  in  that 
of  the  noble  elm  that  graces  the  avenue  or  the  lordly  pine 
that  stands  like  a  sentinel  on  the  hill-top.  This  fact  gives 
marvelous  unity  to  the  idea  of  growth  in  all  classes  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  and  this  unity  in  the  form  and  growth 
of  plants  is  quite  as  wonderful  as  the  universality  of  crys- 
tallization in  the  mineral  kingdom. 

Animal  kingdom  controlled  by  fixed  laws.  Animal  life, 
like  plant  life,  is  under  the  control  of  established  laws,  and 
all  growth  in  the  animal  kingdom  results  from  the  opera- 
tion of  these  laws.  The  growth  of  each  tissue  of  the  body  is 
governed  by  certain  rules  of  selection,  by  which  the  elements 
necessary  for  their  production  are  selected  by  the  organism 
and  constructed  into  tissues  of  the  right  kind.  The  bones 
select  the  right  material  for  making  bone  matter.  The  mus- 
cles select  the  right  material  for  making  muscles.  The  blood 
selects  the  material  that  enters  into  the  composition  of 
blood.  Similarly  the  cells  which  build  up  all  the  tissues  and 
organs  of  the  Ijody  select  the  proper  material  from  the  food 
which  enters  the  body,  and  use  it  for  the  production  of  new 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  CONCEPT  303 

tissues  and  cells  according  to  the  laws  that  govern  selection, 
growth,  and  repair  in  the  animal  kingdom. 

In  this  process  of  assimilation  and  growth,  it  may  readily 
be  discovered  that  there  are  certain  laws  peculiar  to  animal 
life,  which  characterize  it  as  such  and  give  unity  to  all  ani- 
mal life  and  growth.  Further,  a  comparison  of  the  processes 
of  the  growth  and  perpetuation  of  the  various  forms  of 
animal  life  with  those  of  vegetable  life  reveals  the  fact  that 
there  are  certain  characteristics  in  the  plan  of  each  which 
are  common  to  both.  This  indicates  that  the  underlying 
principles  which  govern  life  in  both  the  vegetable  and  the 
animal  kingdom  are  the  same.  It  is  this  fact  of  oneness  in 
the  fundamental  principles  that  gives  unity  to  all  life,  as 
well  as  continuity  to  the  universe.  Without  these  laws  of 
nature,  all  life  and  even  the  universe  itself  would  be  subject 
to  chance. 

Natural  laws  reveal  infinite  mind.  The  discovery  and 
careful  consideration  of  the  remarkable  unity  which  charac- 
terizes the  laws  which  govern  life  and  growth  in  the  physi- 
cal world,  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  these  laws  of  nature 
have  their  origin  in  the  same  all-controlling  intelligence. 
With  this  conclusion  as  a  basis  for  further  analysis,  this 
reasoning  may  be  carried  a  step  farther  in  order  to  discover 
and  state  the  princi})le  which  is  fundamental  in  all  life. 
This  principle  briefly  stated  is  the  exj^ression  of  the  belief 
that  in  the  animate  and  in  the  inanimate  worlds  there  is  a 
unity  in  the  fundamental  laws  governing  them  which  shows 
that  an  infinite  mind  has  ordered  the  creation  of  all  things 
in  nature  according  to  a  definite  plan.  Therefore,  every  idea 
and  fact  which  is  added  to  a  person's  knowledge  and  con- 
ception of  the  laws  that  govern  nature  or  any  increase  in  his 
appreciation  of  the  principle  of  unity  in  the  universe  is  an 
additional  conception  of  truth  and  of  God.  Through  this 
enlargement  of  a  person's  understanding  of  the  laws  of 


304  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

nature,  he  comes  to  feel  the  significance  of  the  principle  of 
unity  in  the  great  world  about  him  and  to  gain  a  compre- 
hension of  the  ruler  of  the  miiverse. 

Divine  discontent  in  the  human  soul.  There  is  in  the  soul 
of  every  normal  human  being  great  unrest  —  a  "  divine 
discontent  "  which  is  a  longing  and  reaching  out  after  truth. 
It  may  be  further  described  as  a  longing  or  hunger  for  a 
fuller  understanding  and  appreciation  of  the  divine.  Man 
looks  about  him  in  the  world  in  which  he  finds  himself  and 
questions,  "  What  is  this.'^  —  and  this.'*  —  and  this?  "  He 
looks  up  at  the  stars  and  asks,  "  What  are  they.^^  "  He  sees 
the  rainbow  and  marvels  at  its  form  and  color.  He  looks  at 
the  delicate  flower  and  inquires  whence  it  came.  He  asks, 
"  Why  the  regularity  of  leaf  and  stem  and  blossom?  "  He 
looks  at  his  fellow-man  and  asks,  "  Wliat  is  man?  Whence 
did  he  come?  and  Whither  is  he  going?  "  He  turns  his 
thought  toward  himself  and  asks,  "  Why  am  I,  I?  Why  am 
I  here?  Wliat  is  my  relation  to  the  world  around  me?  "  In 
his  endeavor  to  find  an  answer  to  each  of  these  queries  and 
to  satisfy  the  human  hunger  for  truth  which  urges  him  on, 
he  searches  after  an  explanation  of  all  the  phenomena  which 
perplex  him.  This  divine  discontent  must  not  be  confused 
with  dissatisfaction  that  makes  a  person  displeased  with 
his  environment,  and  leads  to  fault-finding  and  pessimism. 
The  one  engenders  desire  and  effort  for  improvement  of 
conditions,  the  other  stifles  effort.  The  one  is  constructive, 
the  other  is  destructive. 

A  reaching  out  after  truth  and  further  information  in  any 
department  of  knowledge  enlarges  a  person's  mental  hori- 
zon; and  so  a  search  for  truth  in  the  phenomena  of  nature 
enlarges  the  mental  and  spiritual  vision  and  causes  the  soul 
to  expand.  This  is  growth;  this  is  progress  toward  the  at- 
tainment and  comprehension  of  truth;  this  is  a  step  forward 
in  self-realization.    The  human  hunger  and  yearning  for 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  CONCEPT  305 

truth,  together  with  the  endeavor  to  satisfy  it,  constitute 
the  impelUng  force  which  urges  man  to  the  search  for  truth 
that  results  in  spiritual  growth.  This  must  ever  be  the  case; 
for  if  it  were  not,  there  would  be  no  individual  eflPort  for 
growth.  There  would  be  no  ideals  and  no  incentives,  and 
therefore  all  efforts  for  the  uplift  and  the  improvement  of 
the  masses  would  be  futile.  It  is  the  longing  for  truth  and 
the  desire  for  self-realization  in  every  human  soul  that  makes 
possible  the  profession  of  teaching  and  the  ministry  of  the 
gospel. 

Spiritual  growth  through  search  for  truth.  It  is  evident 
that  a  person  cannot  lead  or  direct  others  in  any  department 
of  research  unless  he  understands  the  principles  underlying 
that  particular  subject  of  investigation.  Therefore,  it  often 
happens  that  those  persons  who  endeavor  to  lead  others  in 
the  search  for  truth  prove  very  poor  guides,  because  they 
themselves  have  only  vague  or  indefinite  standards  of  meas- 
urement which  are  not  based  upon  those  results  that  pro- 
duce true  growth.  The  tests  which  they  apply  and  the  re- 
sults which  these  tests  show  are  not  evidences  of  growth, 
for  the  reason  that  there  is  no  clear  conception  in  the  mind, 
either  of  the  leader  or  of  the  learner,  of  what  constitutes 
growth  in  the  true  sense.  In  order,  then,  to  make  real  prog- 
ress in  the  search  for  truth  and  to  achieve  the  true  aim  in 
spiritual  growth,  the  leader  or  teacher  must  know  the  aim 
to  be  attained,  must  have  correct  standards  for  measuring 
growth,  and  must  understand  the  process  by  which  it  may 
be  secured.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  present  purpose  to 
enter  into  a  detailed  explanation  of  the  steps  by  which 
growth  may  take  place.  It  will  be  sufficient  merely  to  state 
broadly  the  method  of  growth  in  general. 

It  is  self-evident  that  in  order  to  insure  growth  of  any 
kind,  there  must  first  of  all  be  a  beginning,  and  to  this  be- 
ginning additions  must  be  made  continually  as  long  as  the 


306  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACmNG 

process  of  ^owth  continues.  Many  of  the  standards  of  value 
and  the  expressions  of  value  which  are  offered  as  evidences 
of  growth  in  spiritual  development  do  not  indicate  real 
growth,  for  the  reason  that  they  do  not  represent  continu- 
ous development  from  a  definite  beginning.  Since  true 
growth  begins  mth  the  first  concept  of  truth  or  fact,  there 
is  a  definite  beginning  from  which  to  measure  the  additions 
made  to  it  and  the  amount  or  degree  of  growth  attained. 
Real  growth  results  when  to  this  first  concept  of  a  given 
truth  additions  are  made  through  experience,  through  the 
study  of  nature  and  of  matter,  and  through  an  increased 
understanding  of  whatever  will  give  a  larger  conception  of 
truth.  Growth  in  its  highest  and  truest  sense  concentrates 
in  one  fundamental  concept,  and  the  nature  and  magnitude 
of  this  enlarged  concept  are  the  real  measure  and  expression 
of  growth.    An  illustration  may  make  this  more  clear. 

Methods  of  growth  illustrated.  Suppose  that  a  child  is 
beginning  his  formal  study  of  plant  life,  having  only  a  sim- 
ple general  concept  of  a  plant.  To  this  he  adds  other  con- 
cepts by  learning  the  root,  the  stem,  the  leaves  and  other 
I>arts  of  the  plant.  Later  he  learns  the  respective  uses  of 
these  parts  in  the  life  of  the  plant.  He  acquires  the  most 
important  facts  regarding  the  structure  of  the  different  tis- 
sues, and  he  learns  the  names  and  functions  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  plant.  He  finds  that  the  real  purpose  for  which 
the  plant  exists  is  self-realization  and  the  perpetuation  of 
its  species.  He  also  learns  that  in  all  plant  life  there  is  the 
same  purpose  and  process  of  growth.  As  a  result  of  this 
knowledge,  there  dawns  upon  his  consciousness  through  the 
activity  of  his  reasoning  powers,  the  fact  of  a  unity  in  all 
plant  life  as  planned  by  an  infinite  mind.  This  conclusion 
which  the  child  reaches  in  his  early  generalization  regarding 
plant  life,  thougli  at  first  vague,  adds  greatly  to  his  basal  or 
first  concept  of  plant  fife,  the  point  at  which  his  growth  in 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  CONCEPT  307 

this  particular  department  of  knowledge  begins.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  awakening  of  the  child  interest  in  plant  life  an- 
other important  result  is  attained  in  the  development  of 
his  power  to  understand  general  truth. 

Another  illustration  of  the  process  by  which  positive  re- 
sults may  be  attained  in  the  search  for  truth  may  be  taken 
from  the  study  of  biology.  The  child  pursuing  this  study 
learns  certain  facts  regarding  the  nature  and  structure  of 
animal  tissue.  He  also  learns  the  nature  of  the  different  or- 
gans, their  relation  to  one  another,  and  the  purpose  of  each 
in  the  animal  economy.  All  of  these  concepts  finally  merge 
into  the  larger  concept  of  the  distinctive  elements  and 
characteristics  of  all  animal  life.  The  recognition  of  this 
unity  of  plan  and  purpose  in  animal  life  leads  the  thought- 
ful student  to  make  the  same  generalization  as  was  made  in 
the  case  of  plant  life,  namely,  that  the  unity  of  plan  in  all 
animal  life  indicates  one  all-controlling  and  infinite  mind. 
Thus  he  has  enlarged  his  original  concept  of  animal  life 
until  he  is  in  possession  of  sufficient  know^ledge  upon  this 
subject  to  enable  him  to  make  a  positive  generalization 
about  the  plan  and  development  of  all  forms  of  animal 
life. 

Evidence  of  spiritual  growth  in  enlargement  of  concept 
of  truth.  In  the  illustrations  given,  growi:h  does  not  stop 
with  the  generalization  made  with  regard  to  plant  and  ani- 
mal life.  From  what  the  student  has  learned  and  the  con- 
clusions W'hich  he  has  reached  in  these  cases,  he  generalizes 
upon  the  unity  of  plan  and  purpose  governing  both  plant 
and  animal  life,  and  from  this  he  concludes  that  the  same 
divine  intelligence  which  has  created  them  is  the  author  of 
all  life.  These  two  general  concepts  of  plant  and  animal  life 
develop  into  one  broad  general  concept  which  is  that  an 
infinite  mind  is  the  creator  of  all  life.  By  means  of  this 
broader  conception,  the  pupil's  concept  of  truth  is  greatly 


308  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

enlarged  and  a  positive  spiritual  growth  results.  As  he 
seeks  final  conclusions  and  generalizes  upon  them,  the 
thought  naturally  extends  into  the  realm  of  causation;  and 
again  he  is  led  to  a  contemplation  of  the  source  of  all  things 
in  the  universe.  As  the  mind  expands  in  its  efforts  to  grasp 
the  broader  conclusion  which  it  must  reach,  the  spiritual 
being  enlarges  and  grows  and  is  thus  brought  into  a  more 
perfect  unity  with  God  through  this  greatly  enlarged  con- 
cept of  truth. 

Principle  of  unity  in  all  life.  Man  in  response  to  hunger 
for  truth  is  always  seeking  new  ideas,  fresh  facts,  and  eter- 
nal truths  in  the  natural  world,  in  the  social  world,  in  the 
political  world,  in  the  religious  world,  and  in  fact  every- 
where. As  he  studies  the  history  of  the  institutions  of  civili- 
zation and  analyzes  their  evolution  and  growth  through  a 
long  period  of  time,  he  discovers  that  the  laws  which  govern 
their  continuity,  development,  and  stability  are  as  positive 
and  irrevocable  as  those  which  govern  plant  and  animal  life 
or  control  the  varied  elements  of  the  mineral  kingdom. 
So  also,  in  his  analysis  of  social  evolution,  he  discovers  laws 
that  are  as  irrevocable  as  those  which  govern  plant  and 
animal  hfe  or  control  the  varied  elements  of  the  mineral 
kingdom.  Thus  man,  in  his  examination  and  consideration 
of  the  plan  by  which  all  humanity  exists  and  evolves  from 
one  state  to  another,  and  from  one  stage  of  development  to 
a  still  higher  one,  finds  that  the  essential  characteristics  of 
all  organized  human  life  strongly  resemble  those  of  all  life. 
In  his  effort  to  account  for  the  unity  in  this  plan,  he  is  led 
to  conclude  that  mankind,  like  the  lower  forms  of  life,  is  an 
expression  of  the  same  creative  and  controlling  intelligence 
that  rules  all  things  and  orders  their  existence  and  develop- 
ment according  to  laws  that  are  fixed  and  eternal.  Many 
elemental  concepts  enter  into  this  great  all-embracing  con- 
cept which  is  the  controlling  principle  of  truth  in  all  matter 


TIIE  FUNDAMENTAL  CONCEPT  309 

and  in  all  life.  It  is  this  princii)le,  this  truth,  which,  under 
different  names,  mankind  is  seeking  the  world  over. 

All  organized  matter  a  proof  of  creative  intelligence.  An 
examination  of  the  princii)le  of  unity  in  creation  makes  clear 
the  fact  that  any  organized  material  substance  is  as  posi- 
tive a  proof  of  a  creative  intelligence  as  the  proofs  found  in 
recognized  spiritual  teaching.  A  man's  hand  or  any  one  of 
his  members  is  an  expression  of  an  infinite  creative  mind  as 
truly  as  is  the  intellectual  or  the  spiritual  soul  of  man.  A 
piece  of  crystal,  a  violet,  or  a  butterfly  is  as  certainly  an 
evidence  of  this  all-pervading  truth  as  is  man  himself.  The 
mere  intellectual  knowledge  of  these  facts  does  not,  how- 
ever, produce  conviction  and  serve  as  a  stimulus  for  effort 
in  the  search  for  truth.  It  is  only  when  structure  and  the 
laws  of  structure,  form  and  the  laws  governing  form,  and  the 
marvelous  unity  which  exists  in  the  universe  is  compre- 
hended by  the  human  mind,  at  least  in  part,  that  man  be- 
gins to  understand  and  tries  to  account  for  these  phenomena. 
Then  the  reasoning  is  carried  back  to  first  causes,  —  to  the 
great  creative  power,  and  the  human  mind  in  larger  meas- 
ure comprehends  the  real  significance  of  creation  and  gains 
an  insight  into  the  all-wise  plan  to  which  man  owes  his 
existence  and  his  intelligence.  In  this  way  man  comes  to 
know  himself  and  to  grasp  the  idea  of  the  self  in  its  unity 
with  the  universe  and  with  the  Infinite. 

Spiritual  law  interpreted  through  natural  law.  From  the 
foregoing  discussion  it  is  apparent  that  through  a  com- 
prehension of  natural  law,  one  may  come  into  a  more 
complete  understanding  of  spiritual  law.  By  means  of 
repeated  experiments  scientists  have  proven  conclusively 
that  life  cannot  generate  itself,  —  that  it  can  be  produced 
only  from  a  living  antecedent.  This  leads  them  to  a  fuller 
understanding  of  the  principle  of  unity  in  the  universe 
and    to  deeper  comprehension   of  truth.    Thus  scientific 


310  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

investigations,  when  carried  far  enough,  reveal  the  unity 
of  man  and  the  universe  with  God,  and  foster,  instead 
of  retarding,  real  spiritual  growth.  Nor  are  scientists  the 
only  persons  who  learn  truth  from  their  study  of  the  se- 
crets of  the  universe.  All  students  of  nature  can  learn  the 
truths  which  she  reveals.  The  poets,  who  have  received 
from  nature  the  inspiration  for  some  of  their  finest  thoughts 
and  their  noblest  utterances,  have  discovered  the  truth  of 
this  statement.  In  natural  law  and  the  phenomena  of 
nature,  they  have  read  the  spiritual  law  and  the  unity 
of  themselves  and  of  all  mankind  with  the  Infinite. 

The  sight  of  a  solitary  little  sandpiper,  flitting  along  the 
lonely  beach  as  the  storm  was  coming  on,  with  no  apparent 
anxiety  for  the  future,  suggested  to  the  poet  that  she,  her- 
self, as  one  of  God's  creatures,  was  under  the  care  and  pro- 
tection of  the  Divine  hand,  even  as  was  the  little  bird;  and 
she  exclaimed :  "  Are  we  not  God's  creatures  all,  thou  little 
sandpiper  and  I?  " 

The  sight  of  the  broken  sea  shell  cast  up  by  the  waves 
gave  the  poet.  Holmes,  the  inspiration  for  one  of  his  mas- 
terpieces. In  the  growth  of  the  former  occupant  of  the 
now  empty  shell,  he  read  a  "  heavenly  message  "  to  his  own 
soul.  In  the  contemplation  of  the  way  in  which  the  nautilus 
as  it  outgTows  each  spiral  chamber  builds  for  itself  a  larger 
one,  the  poet  found  law  of  spiritual  growth  which  he  puts 
into  words  in  the  lines:  — 

"Build  thee  more  stately  mansions,  0  my  soul. 
As  the  swift  seasons  roll! 
Leave  thy  low-vaulted  past! 
Let  each  new  temple,  nobler  than  the  last, 
Shut  thee  from  heaven  with  a  dome  more  vast. 
Till  thou  at  length  art  free. 
Leaving  thine  outgrown  shell  by  life's  unresting  sea!" 

Principle  of  unity  fundamental.  This  principle  of  unity 
in  the  universe,  the  unity  of  man  and  the  universe  with 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  CONCEPT  311 

God,  is  the  most  vital  concept  that  man  can  acquire.  Any 
philosophy  of  life  would  be  incomplete  without  it;  for  any 
philosophy  which  does  not  include  the  divine  intelligence 
in  the  life  of  man  and  in  all  things  in  nature,  omits  that 
which  makes  life  and  effort  worth  while.  Any  philosophy 
which  does  not  include  the  Infinite  in  the  future  life  with 
man  constantly  growing  in  the  knowledge  and  appreciation 
of  truth  is  not  only  unsatisfying  but  really  harmful;  for  it 
robs  life  present  and  life  to  come  of  its  hopes,  its  richest 
blessings  and  its  truest  joys.  God  is  infinite,  man  is  finite; 
and  no  finite  mind  can  fully  comprehend  the  infinite  mind 
and  intelligence.  It  follows  therefore,  that  man  may  con- 
tinue to  enlarge  his  concept  of  unity,  truth,  God,  not  only 
during  this  life  but  throughout  an  eternity  where  the  hori- 
zon of  thought  will  ever  widen  and  new  and  more  glorious 
truths  will  enlarge  the  soul. 

Desire  for  truth  universal.  The  desire  to  find  and  to 
know  truth  is  inherent  in  the  soul  of  every  human  being. 
The  whole  human  race  is  ever  seeking  for  new  facts,  for 
more  knowledge  and  a  better  understanding  of  higher  things. 
It  was  this  desire  to  discover  better  things,  to  find  out  some- 
thing not  already  known,  that  led  the  small  boy  to  cut  the 
bellows  to  see  what  was  inside  of  it.  It  was  the  desire  to 
know  the  truth  which  prompted  Columbus  to  analyze  the 
facts  which  he  possessed,  until  through  a  process  of  reason- 
ing he  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  earth  was  round 
and  that  by  sailing  continuously  in  the  same  direction  one 
would  eventually  come  back  to  the  place  from  which  one 
started.  Not  only  the  great  scientists,  but  many  explorers, 
such  as  Kane,  Nansen,  Peary,  and  others  who  might  be  men- 
tioned, have  been  earnest  seekers  after  truth,  and  some  of 
them  chose  to  spend  their  lives  in  the  endeavor  to  discover 
new  facts  or  to  gain  some  additional  information  about 
those  things  and  places  of  which  the  world  had  incomplete 


312  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACEONG ' 

knowledge.  The  inventors  are  another  group  of  seekers  and 
tireless  workers,  who  are  willing  to  endure  hardships  and  to 
brave  the  criticisms  and  sneers  of  men  in  their  endeavors  to 
discover  some  new  and  useful  ideas  and  to  put  them  into 
concrete  and  serviceable  forms.  Bell,  Edison,  Marconi,  and 
a  host  of  other  inventors  of  modern  times,  whom  every 
reader  can  name,  have  become  justly  famous  because  of  the 
contributions  which  they  have  made  to  society  through 
their  useful  inventions. 

The  discovery  of  the  power  of  steam  as  utilized  by  Fulton, 
Stephenson,  and  others  who  have  harnessed  this  mighty 
force  for  the  use  of  man  furnishes  another  noticeable  ex- 
ample. The  application  of  this  power  in  the  driving  of  en- 
gines for  a  variety  of  uses  has  been  the  result  of  definite 
and  determined  efforts  on  the  part  of  these  inventors  to 
discover  the  previously  unknown  power  and  possibility  of 
this  mighty  force,  —  in  short  to  learn  the  truth  about  it. 
These  wonderful  contributions  of  science  and  invention 
have  all  been  the  result  of  a  delving  after  facts  in  an  effort 
to  discover  or  to  find  out  something  not  already  known. 
Countless  illustrations  might  be  given  in  proof  of  this  rest- 
less seeking  after  knowledge,  this  tireless  search  for  truth. 

Desire  for  truth  makes  teaching  possible.  Every  normal 
child,  as  well  as  every  adult  person,  possesses  this  natural 
desire  for  new  facts,  this  hunger  for  knowledge  of  some 
kind.  The  child  early  shows  his  interest  in  the  world  about 
him.  This  interest  has  its  origin  in  the  childish  instinct  of 
curiosity  which  leads  him  to  investigate  the  objects  within 
his  reach  in  order  to  find  out  what  they  are,  what  they  are 
for,  or  how  they  are  made.  As  soon  as  he  can  express  him- 
self in  words,  he  plies  his  elders  with  questions  about  the 
things  that  interest  or  perplex  him.  It  is  this  desire  for  in- 
formation that  makes  teaching  possible.  Further,  it  is  the 
restless  longing  for  higher  truth  that  makes  possible  the 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  CONCEPT  313 

development  and  establishment  of  character.  It  is  the 
yearning  for  something  better,  something  not  yet  attained, 
that  is  the  great  essential  in  the  endeavor  to  gain  hai)piness. 
These  desires  and  hungers  on  the  part  of  the  young  furnish 
the  condition  which  permits  of  the  teacher's  offering  such 
mental  and  spiritual  food  as  will  contribute  to  the  present 
need  and  at  the  same  time  so  delight  the  child  as  to  increase 
his  desire  for  more.  Thus  the  process  of  desiring  and  ac- 
quiring may  go  on,  leading  the  learner  step  by  stej)  higher 
and  higher  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  the  develop- 
ment of  character,  until  real  growth  is  attained.  The  fact 
thai  the  human  mind  is  ever  seeking  higher  truth  makes  pos- 
sible an  earthly  life  of  growth  and  happiness  and  an  eternal 
life  of  continued  development  and  joy.  With  each  succeeding 
day,  new  conceptions  of  the  Infinite  may  be  acquired,  and 
this  keeps  alive  the  incentive  for  seeking  more  knowledge 
and  broader  and  clearer  conceptions  of  truth. 

Teachers  must  be  seekers  for  truth.  A  leading  educator 
has  said  that  if  he  were  to  put  above  the  door  of  the  school- 
house  one  word  expressive  of  the  aim  of  elementary  and  high 
school  education,  he  would  put  there  in  electric  light  the 
word  "  truth."  "  Truth,"  he  said,  "  is  more  than  knowl- 
edge, although  the  latter  is  a  broad  term.  Knowledge  may 
abide  as  a  matter  of  intellect,  but  truth  touches  the  heart 
out  of  which  are  the  issues  of  life."  Teachers  must  them- 
selves be  seekers  after  truth,  if  they  are  to  give  to  their 
pupils  the  incentives  that  will  make  them  desire  and  search 
for  it.  Teachers  must  know  by  what  means  truth  may  be 
found,  if  they  are  to  direct  their  pupils  aright  in  this  search. 
When  teachers  in  all  our  schools  learn  that  they  have  not 
discharged  their  full  duty  in  simply  instructing  and  drilling 
their  pupils  in  the  subject-matter  of  the  curriculum,  that 
academic  knowledge  is  not  the  whole  purpose  of  education, 
then  we  shall  see  teachers  who  are  seekers  after  truth,  and 


S14  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

who,  in  addition  to  striving  for  objective  results,  make  it 
a  distinct  purpose  of  their  teaching  to  direct  the  young  in 
the  search  for  truth  that  the  ultimate  aim  of  true  educa- 
tion may  be  attained  in  character  growth. 

Spiritual  growth  possible  for  all.  Individual  men  may 
\ary  greatly  in  their  attainments  when  these  are  estimated 
by  material  or  human  standards.  For  this  reason  there  is 
an  almost  universal  difference  among  men  because  of 
scholarship,  wealth,  or  position.  When,  however,  human 
minds  are  estimated  in  terms  of  the  Infinite,  the  degrees  of 
difference  among  the  diverse  finite  minds  seem  small  in 
comparison  to  the  wide  difference  between  the  Infinite  and 
the  finite  mind.  To  illustrate:  If  two  persons  set  out  to 
walk  to  a  certain  place  a  mile  distant,  and  the  one  had  al- 
ready gone  three  fourths  of  a  mile  before  the  other  started, 
they  would  be  considered  a  long  distance  apart.  If,  how- 
ever, they  were  setting  out  to  walk  from  New  York  to  Chi- 
cago, and  the  one  was  three  fourths  of  a  mile  in  advance  of 
the  other,  they  would  be  regarded  as  only  a  short  distance 
apart.  The  walker  who  is  three  fourths  of  a  mile  in  advance 
of  the  other  seems  a  long  way  ahead  when  the  distance  to 
be  traveled  is  only  one  mile,  but  when  it  is  a  thousand  miles 
he  does  not  seem  so  very  far  in  advance  of  the  other.  Three 
fourths  of  a  mile  seems  a  long  distance  when  compared  with 
one  mile,  but  when  it  is  compared  with  one  thousand  miles, 
it  seems  a  very  short  distance.  Similarly,  with  a  conception 
of  truth,  all  finite  minds,  however  far  apart  they  may  seem 
to  be  from  one  another  in  knowledge,  are  relatively  close 
together  when  their  knowledge  is  compared  with  that  of  the 
Infinite.  All  persons  in  every  walk  in  life  may  attain  a 
clearer  understanding  and  a  fuller  conception  of  truth  and 
of  God,  with  the  consequent  character  growth  if  they 
respond  to  the  urgent  Divine  force  within  which  impels 
them  to  seek  that  which  is  true  and  high  and  ennobling. 


'  THE  FUNDAMENTAL  CONCEPT  315 

Mental  and  spiritual  unrest  essential  for  growth.  The 
unrest  in  the  human  mind  and  heart,  the  longing  to  know 
something  not  yet  clearly  understood,  which  is  present  in 
the  soul  of  man  is  an  essential  condition  for  growth.  If 
man  knew  truth  intuitively,  if  he  understood  God,  there 
would  be  no  higher  realms  to  explore,  and  he  would  have  no 
incentive  for  study  and  research.  There  would  be  nothing 
to  stimulate  growth,  for  there  would  be  no  higher  knowledge 
to  which  man  might  attain.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
was  wisdom  in  the  Divine  plan  which  withheld  knowledge 
from  man,  ordaining  that  he  secure  it  through  his  own  ef- 
fort, for  in  no  other  way  could  man  have  grown  in  the  true 
sense  or  come  into  a  full  realization  of  self.  Wise  instruc- 
tion should  feed  this  desire  for  growth  in  such  a  way  that 
with  material  properly  selected  and  related,  the  knowledge 
gained  wi\[  enlarge  the  conception  of  higher  truth.  The 
person  who  understands  how  to  give  such  instruction  and 
gain  such  results  is  a  teacher  in  the  highest  sense. 

Since  there  can  be  no  real  growth  without  the  seeking 
element,  which  finds  its  expression  in  a  desire  to  know 
truth  and  in  a  hunger  for  the  Divine,  it  is  apparent  that 
God  showed  his  wisdom  in  implanting  in  the  soul  of  man 
the  longing  for  truth.  It  is  the  longing  for  truth  not  yet  at- 
tained, that  gives  the  unrest,  which  leads  human  beings  to 
seek  fm-ther  truth.  It  is  this  unrest,  this  "divine  discon- 
tent," in  the  soul  of  man  which  prevents  his  settling  down 
satisfied  and  content  with  the  first  grasp  of  truth,  and  leads 
him  on  to  fuller  knowledge  and  higher  truth.  With  this 
constantly  enlarging  conception  and  understanding  of  truth, 
comes  the  desire  for  broader  knowledge  and  deeper  experi- 
ences. Thus  impelled  by  his  unrest,  man  is  ever  seeking  truth, 
and  a  fuller  realization  of  the  self.  The  Creator  adopted 
the  surest  means  of  arousing  man  to  a  spiritual  activity, 
which,  when  properly  directed,  results  in  continual  growth 


316  THE  PROFESSION  OF  TEACHING 

in  Divine  truth,  when  He  withheld  knowledge  and  gave 
unrest.  The  poet  has  expressed  this  in  the  following  lines :  — 

THE  GIFTS  OF  GOD 

When  God  at  first  made  man. 
Having  a  glass  of  blessings  standing  by; 
Let  us  (said  He),  pour  on  him  all  we  can; 
Let  the  world's  riches  which  dispersed  lie. 

Contract  into  a  span. 

So  strength  first  made  a  way; 
Then  beauty  flowed,  then  wisdom,  honor,  pleasure; 
When  almost  all  was  out,  God  made  a  stay. 
Perceiving  that  alone,  of  all  His  treasure. 

Rest  in  the  bottom  lay. 

For  if  I  should  (said  He), 
Bestow  this  jewel  also  on  My  creature. 
He  would  adore  my  gifts  instead  of  Me, 
And  rest  in  Nature,  not  the  God  of  Nature, 

So  both  should  losers  be. 

Yet  let  him  keep  the  rest. 
But  keep  them  with  repining  restlessness: 
Let  him  be  rich  and  weary,  but  at  least. 
If  goodness  lead  him  not,  yet  weariness 

May  toss  him  to  My  breast. 

George  Herbert. 

True  education  results  in  character  growth.  The  pur- 
pose of  this  chapter  is  to  show  that  all  human  effort  is  con- 
cerned with  self-realization,  which  can  be  attained  only  by 
working  in  harmony  with  fixed  laws  and  in  response  to  a 
natural  longing  of  the  soul  for  higher  things  —  for  truth. 
Indeed  throughout  the  entire  book,  the  effort  has  been  to 
present  the  means  by  which  the  young  may  be  assisted  in 
their  efforts  to  attain  the  ultimate  aim  of  education  in  char- 
acter building.  It  has  been  made  clear  that  the  school,  in 
addition  to  giving  a  knowledge  of  science,  history,  mathe- 
matics, and  other  facts  of  world  knowledge,  should  endeavor 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  CONCEPT  317 

to  lead  pupils  to  see  that  back  of  this  body  of  knowledge  there 
is  an  Infinite  mind  that  has  created  and  ordered  all  things 
in  the  universe  after  a  definite  plan.  If  this  is  properly  done, 
the  learner  will  feel  the  promptings  of  the  hunger  for  truth 
and  will  come  to  understand  that  all  true  growth  for  himself 
will  be  made  only  through  satisfying  this  hunger  in  a  search 
for  and  the  attainment  of  higher  knowledge  and  truth.  This 
truth  is  the  fundamental  concept,  a  fuller  knowledge  of 
which  all  mankind  is  striving  to  gain.  When  this  knowledge 
is  gained  by  an  individual,  it  is  said,  in  terms  of  philosophy, 
that  he  has  found  truth;  in  terms  of  education,  that  he  has 
attained  character  growth.  Hence  the  teacher,  while  con- 
cerning himself  with  the  immediate  aim,  should  never  lose 
sight  of  the  ultimate  aim,  character.  To  this  end,  he  should 
remember  that  the  subjects  of  study  as  defined  by  the  cur- 
riculum are  not  merely  facts  of  knowledge  to  be  imparted 
to  the  pupil,  but  that  they  furnish  the  material  by  means  of 
which  ideals  may  be  formed,  incentives  for  the  search  for 
truth  may  be  received,  and  real  character  results  may  be 
attained. 


INDEX 


Ability,  the  child's  known  and  util- 
ized, chapter  xiv;  above  average, 
280;  average,  279;  chart  for  record 
of  child's,  283;  chart  for  study  of 
self,  296;  desirable  likes  a  factor 
in,  294;  diagram  illustrating  range 
of,  279;  discovery  of,  often  ac- 
cidental, 292;  elements  in,  296;  ex- 
ceptional, often  neglected,  285; 
grouping  according  to,  makes 
teaching  just,  284;  injustice  to 
pupils  because  of  wTong  evaulation 
of,  287;  interests  of  child  often  re- 
veal, 292;  special  classes  for  special, 
290;  sub-normal,  279;  teachers 
must  have  varied,  295;  unrecog- 
nized, example  of,  285;  varied,  in 
different  persons,  278;  varied,  in 
different  studies,  288;  varied,  illus- 
trated, 289. 

Addams,  Jane,  66. 

Aim  of  education,  chapter  iii;  at- 
tained through  right  teaching,  59; 
character,  45;  examination  tests 
show,  144;  in  teaching,  15;  real- 
ized, 202;  stated  by  different  edu- 
cators, 44;  use  of  subject-matter 
a  means  toward,  57. 

Api)erception,  relation  to  learning 
process,  126;  relation  to  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge  illustrated,  128. 

Apperceptive  mass,  in  the  learning 
process,  127. 

Apprenticeship,  vocational  prepara- 
tion through,  5,  230. 

Authors  quoted,  Bryant,  65;  Bun- 
yan,  John,  75;  David  (Psalmist), 
63,  65;  De  Garmo,  13;  Epictetus, 


75;  Froebel,  13,45;Hall,  G.  Stan- 
ley, 150,  163,  184;  Harper,  W.  R., 
181;  Harris,  W.  T.,  45,  188;  Har- 
vey, L.  D.,  234;  Herbert,  George, 
316;  Hinsdale,  37,  187,  190,  193; 
Holland,  J.  G.,  57;  James,  William 
76;  MacKenzie,  62;  McMurry,  13, 
45;  Milton,  45;  O'Shea,  45;  Paul 
(Apostle),  75,  80;  Plato,  44;  Rus- 
kin,  64;  Soldan,  167;  Spencer, 
Herbert,  13,  45;  Strayer,  George, 
182;  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  44;  Tomp- 
kins, Arnold,  135,  168;  Washing- 
ton, 103;  Wordsworth,  65. 
Aversion,  in  the  learning  process,  132. 

Bell,  312. 

Board  of  education,  obligations  of, 
to  teachers,  23 ;  relation  to  schools, 
24;  relation  of  teachers  to,  30; 
representative  of  parents,  24;  vio- 
lation of  ethical  relation  by,  25. 

Booth,  66. 

Bryant,  65. 

Bunyan,  65. 

Character,  aim  of  education,  45;  aim 
attained,  59;  broad  conception  of, 
46;  building  of,  56;  ideals  in,  48- 
54;  the  sum  of  ideals,  57;  true  edu- 
cation, results  in,  316. 

Child,  duties  of  community  toward, 
19,  22;  duty  of  board  of  educaton 
toward,  19;  duty  of  superintend- 
ent toward,  19,  27;  education  of, 
19;  responsibility  of  teaches  to, 
19,  35. 

Citizenship,    training    foreign    chil- 


INDEX 


dren  for  American,  107;  State 
forced  to  educate  for,  116. 

Civilization,  complex,  makes  educa- 
tional problem  difficult,  231;  rela- 
tion of  subject-matter  of  schools 
to,  211;  simple  needs  of  early,  87; 
social  laws  in  development  of, 
71;  vocational  training  in  early, 
85-87. 

Columbus,  160,  311. 

Commerce,  explained,  4;  character- 
istics of,  10;  as  vocation,  sugges- 
tive study  of,  268. 

Community,  duties  of,  to  children, 
22;  duties  of,  to  teacher,  21 ;  ideals 
of,  22;  influences  of,  upon  chil- 
dren, 22;  obligation  to  school,  21; 
special  obligations  of,  23. 

Concepts,  correct,  necessary  for 
right  thinking,  chapter  viii;  early, 
differ  with  environment,  200;  from 
manual  training,  150;  fundamen- 
tal, 300;  in  the  learning  process, 
129;  means  of  gaining,  through 
teaching,  164;  related,  necessary 
for  logical  thinking,  143;  subject- 

*  matter  rich  in,  149;  subject-matter 
for  teaching,  210;  teacher's  pov- 
erty of,  142;  teachers  should  teach 
real,  131;  teaching  should  correct 
wrong,  163. 

Consciousness,  gained  through  sen- 
sations, 121;  beginning  of,  impor- 
tant, 121. 

Coun.selor,  vocational,  270;  quali- 
ties for,  271. 

Course  of  study,  readjustment  of, 
245;  should  contain  subjects  rich 
in  concepts,  149. 

Curiosity,  appeal  through,  136;  in 
lejirning  i)roccss,  132;  interest  out- 
growth of,  132. 

Curriculum,  character  of  subject- 
matter  for,  207;  concepts  material 
in,   149;  race  fads  in,  98;  test  of 


subject-matter  of,  98;  vocational- 
izing  of  subject-matter  of,  246. 

David  (Psalmist),  63,  65. 

De  Garmo,  13. 

Desire,  in  learning  process,  132;  re- 
sults from  interest  and  informa- 
tion, 132. 

Dewey,  John,  298. 

Domestic  arts,  value  of  training  in, 
244. 

Domestic  science,  for  practical  edu- 
cation, 228-29;  work  in,  sugges- 
tions for,  243. 

Edison,  312. 

Education,  aim  of  character,  44;  aim 
of,  realized,  202;  all  social  institu- 
tions have  a  part  in,  95 ;  both  gen- 
eral and  special,  203;  community 
idea  in,  13;  complex  civilization 
makes  problem  of,  difficult,  231; 
early  attempts  at  practical,  227-29; 
educating  forces  for,  43;  explained, 
43,  199;  guidance  of  agencies  for, 
203;  happiness  as  related  to,  62; 
large  aim  in,  59;  means  for,  204- 
06 ;  need  of  vocational,  recognized, 
226 ;  plus  element  in,  57 ;  practical, 
result  of  demand,  226;  principles 
of,  4,  13;  relation  of  happiness  to, 
80;  results  in  character  growth, 
316;  schools  of,  13;  source  of  means 
of,  206;  statement  of  aim  by  edu- 
cators, 44;  subjective  phase  of, 
152;  ultimate  aim  of,  chapter  iii; 
vocational,  in  preparation  for  life, 
224. 

Eliot,  Charles  W.,  253. 

Epiclelus,  75. 

Ethics,  among  clergy,  8,  36;  elements 
in,  7;  ethical  relations  of  various 
persons  to  teachers,  20;  in  pro- 
fessions, 7;  in  legal  profession,  9; 
in  medical  profession,  7,  36;  inter- 


INDEX 


821 


dependence   of  ethical   relations, 
20;  school,  chapter  ii. 

Froebel,  13. 
Fulton,  Robert,  312. 
Function,  social,  of  school,  chapter 
V  ;  of  school  performed,  100. 

Genius,  contributions  of,  to  State, 
281;  schools  should  develop,  281; 
teachers  should  try  to  discover, 
281;  unrecognized,  285-87;  value 
of  cultivating,  290. 

God,  Gifts  of  (poem),  316;  organ- 
ized matter  proof  of,  309;  revela- 
tion of,  in  nature,  309;  unity  of 
man  with,  310;  unity  of  univtirse 
with,  310. 

Growth,  evidence  of,  in  grasp  of 
truth,  308;  mental  and  spiritual 
unrest  essential  to,  315;  methods 
of,  illustrated,  306;  spiritual,  at- 
tained through  effort  to  get  truth, 
805;  spiritual,  possible  for  all,  314; 
true  education  results  in,  306. 

Habit,  of  thinking,  152;  cultivating, 
of  thinking,  154;  element  in  abil- 
ity, 296. 

Hall,  G.  Stanley,  150,  163,  184. 

Happiness,  an  aid  to  best  effort,  67; 
as  related  to  education,  chapter 
iv;  desire  for  universal,  62;  immun- 
ity from  pain  not  necessary  for, 
77;  impossible  without  observance 
of  law,  77;  not  dependent  upon 
external  conditions,  74;  quest  of, 
legitimate,  63;  relation  to  educa- 
tion, 80;  through  self-gratification, 
64;  through  service,  66;  through 
obedience  to  law,  68. 

Harper,  VV.  R.,  181. 

Harris,  W.  T.,  45,  188. 

Harvey,  L.  D.,  234. 

Herbart,  13. 


Herbert,  George,  316. 

Hinsdale,  Burke,  37,  187,  190. 

Holland.  J.  G.,  57. 

Home,  character  of  nation  deter- 
mined by  character  of,  229;  condi- 
tion in  modern,  88;  domestic  sci- 
ence dignifies  work  of,  229;  duties 
of,  relegated  to  school,  93;  ideals 
of,  49;  physical  needs  of  child  neg- 
lected by,  97;  responsibilities  of ,  96; 
school  should  supplement  training 
of,  91 ;  unable  to  provide  complete 
training,  90;  vocational  training 
in  early,  85. 

Ideals,  character  the  sum  of,  57;  citi- 
zenship, 53;  commercial,  51;  com- 
munity, 22;  home,  49;  industrial, 
52;  manhood,  54;  municipal,  50; 
patriotism,  54. 

Image,  memory,  125. 

Industrial  workers,  3. 

Industries,  character  of,  3;  involving 
work  in  wood,  242;  prevocational 
work  in  various,  245;  schools 
should  lay  foundation  for,  233; 
subdivisions  of,  254;  training  for, 
through  apprenticeship,  230; 
trained  specialists  required  for, 
231. 

Interest,  in  the  learning  process,  131 ; 
factor  in  learning,  133. 

James,  William,  76. 
Jefferson,  103. 
Job,  65. 

Judgment,  exercise  of,  129;  relation 
of,  to  learning  process,  125. 

Kane,  311. 

Lamb,  Charles,  77. 

Laws,  all  matter  controlled  by  fixed, 
300;  breaking  of,  fatal  to  happi- 
ness, 72;  growth  in  animal  king- 


322 


INDEX 


dom  controlled  by,  302;  growth  in 
vegetable  kingdom  controlled  by, 
301;  habit  of  obeying,  75;  happi- 
ness impossible  without  observ- 
ance of,  77;  happiness  through 
obedience  to,  68;  infinite  mind  re- 
vealed in  nature,  303;  nature's, 
discovered  through  experience,  70; 
social,  evolved,  71;  social,  broken, 
71;  spiritual,  interpreted  through 
natural,  309;  of  teaching,  176- 
77;  violation  of,  69. 

Learning  process,  chapter  vii;  aver- 
sion in,  132;  compared  to  building, 
128;  concept  in,  129;  curiosity  in, 
132;  desire  in,  132;  exercise  of 
judgment  necessary,  129;  influ- 
ence of  physical  nature  in,  136;  in- 
terest important  factor  in,  133; 
relation  of  apperception  to,  126; 
relation  of  judgment  to,  125 ;  rela- 
tion of  memory  to,  124;  steps  in, 
135;  subject-matter  in,  168;  think- 
ing in,  133;  will  in,  132. 

Lesson,  application  of,  173-76;  de- 
velopment of,  172-75 ;  general- 
ization in  development  of,  173, 
176. 

MacKenzie,  62. 

McMurry,  Frank,  13,  45. 

Manual  training,  attempt  in  practi- 
cal education,  227;  concepts  from, 
illustrated,  150;  for  teaching  con- 
cepts, 228;  possibilities  of,  in 
school  program,  228;  practical  use 
of,  in  prevocational  work,  240, 
242. 

Marconi,  312. 

Medicine,  different  schools  in,  12; 
ethics  in,  7,  36;  outline  of  study  for 
vocational  guidance,  261;  profes- 
sion of,  4. 

Memory  images,  125;  in  the  learning 
process,  124. 


Nansen,  811. 

Nation,  plan  of  education  for,  impor- 
tant, 103;  Washington  on  educa- 
tion in,  103. 

Negative,  should  be  avoided  in 
teachmg,  293. 

Objective  teaching,  aim  in,  172;  aim 
should  not  govern  selection  of 
lesson  material,  142;  matter  for, 
59;  measure  of  growth  in,  141;  re- 
sults from  59,  144;  results  defined, 
144;  results  illustrated,  145;  re- 
sults in  recitation,  196. 

O'Shea,  M.  V.,  45. 

Parents,  co-workers  with  teachers, 
29;  relation  to  teachers,  28;  report 
of,  for  vocational  guidance,  273; 
responsibility  of,  81. 

Paul  (Apostle),  75,  80.   ^ 

Peary,  311. 

Pestalozzi,  13. 

Pilgrims,  161. 

Plato,  44. 

Plus  element,  in  education,  57. 

Prevocational  instruction,  illustrated, 
240-43;  in  small  schools,  239;  in 
various  industries,  245;  value  of, 
237-40. 

Principles,  all  matter  governed  by, 
300;  animal  life  controlled  by,  302; 
fundamental  in  all  life,  303; 
growth  in  vegetable  kingdom  con- 
trolled by,  301 ;  ideals  based  upon, 
49-56;  laws  of  happiness  based 
upon,  68;  professions  based  upon, 
0;  psychological,  learned  through 
experience,  146;  teaching  based 
upon,  11;  underlying  in,  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge,  176. 

Profession,  agreement  on  laws  not 
essential  to,  12;  based  upon  fun- 
damental i)rinciples,  6;  charac- 
teristics, of,  9-16;  defined,  1  ff.\ 


INDEX 


323 


definition  applied  to  teaching,  10 
distinguished  from  other  vocations 
4;  ethical  elements  in,  10;  ethics 
of,  7;  fundamental  principles  in,  6 
preparation  for,  10. 

Pupils,  educational  capital  of,  201 
failure  of,  to  think,  147;  keeping 
in  school,  237;  preparation  for  sub 
I  ject-matter,  171 ;  recitation  adapt- 
ed, to,  190;  relation  of  teachers 
to,  35;  subject-matter  adapted 
to,  218;  teaching,  how  to  study, 
189;  use  of  previous  knowledge  of, 

:   162. 

Recitaticm,  chapter  x;  adapted  to 
pupils,  190;  aims  in,  186-88;  con- 
ditions for  good,  196;  established 
feature  of  school  work,  183;  evi- 
dences of  good,  196;  German  plan 
of,  184;  idea  of,  modified,  183;  im- 
portance of,  185;  in  school  pro- 
gram, 181;  learning  to  study  in, 
190;  length  of.  193-95;  objects  of, 
189;  objective  results  in,  196;  or- 
der in,  191;  subjective  results  in, 
196;  table  for  program  of,  195; 
value  of,  181 ;  waste  of  time  in,  182, 
190. 

Riis,  Jacob,  6Q. 

Ruskin,  John,  64. 

School,  American  free,  104;  assumes 
duties  of  other  institutions,  94-96; 
criticism  of,  makes  change  neces- 
sary, 148;  duties  imposed  upon, 
90;  duties  of  other  institutions  dele- 
gated to,  90,  93-96;  economical 
method  of  education,  116;  efifec- 
tive  method  for  instructing  masses, 
115;  fosters  patriotism,  109;  homo- 
geneous people  result  of,  107;  im- 
portant facts  in  curriculum  of,  98; 
influence  for  preservation  of  State, 
118;    medical    inspection    in,  93; 


nationalizing  children  in,  108;  a 
nationalizing  force,  105;  recita- 
tion a  feature  of,  183;  relation  of, 
to  State,  chapter  vi;  relation  of,  to 
vocational  instruction,  112;  rela- 
tion of,  to  vocational  problem, 
275;  should  instruct  for  exercise 
of  sovereignty,  117;  should  pro- 
vide instruction  for  all,  256;  social 
function  of,  chapter  v;  standard- 
izes knowledge,  110;  vocational 
instruction  a  problem  of,  229. 

Sensations,  character  of,  differ,  122; 
consciousness  through,^  122 ;  few 
distinct  kinds  of,  123. 

Soldan,  167. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  13,  45. 

State,  laws  of  self-preservation  of, 
116;  relation  of  school  to,  chapter 
vi;  right  of,  to  require  attendance 
of  school,  109;  school  potent  influ- 
ence for  preserving,  118. 

Stevenson,  312. 

Strayer,  George,  182. 

Subject-matter,  chapter  xi;  adapted 
to  development  of  child,  218;  aim 
of  education  realized  in,  202;  cul- 
tural value  of,  213;  failure  to 
adapt,  results  in  loss,  218;  mate- 
rial for  teaching,  209-10;  prepara- 
tion of  child's  mind  for,  171;  pre- 
sentation of,  168;  purpose  of,  168; 
relation  of,  to  present  civilization, 
211-12;  right  estimate  of  value 
of,  199;  selection  of,  165,  207;  se- 
quence in,  167;  taken  from  all 
fields  of  knowledge,  216;  tests  of, 
99;  use  of,  in  learning  process, 
168. 

Subjective  teaching,  aim  of,  172;  ap- 
parent results  of,  often  misleading, 
146;  character  growth  for,  59; 
growth  from,  178;  more  attention 
to,  essential,  152;  recitation  should 
show  results  of,   196;  results  of. 


324 


INDEX 


144;  selection  of  subject-matter 
for,  142. 
Superintendent  of  schools,  ethical 
obligations  of,  25;  ethical  relations 
to  teachers,  26;  relation  to  pupils, 
27;  relation  of  teachers  to,  30. 

Teacher,  aim  of,  15;  better  prepara- 
tion of,  151;  complex  relations  of, 
28;  concern  of,  for  human  welfare, 
11;  co-workers  with  parents,  29; 
ethical  obligations  of,  16;  ethical 
relations  of  community  to,  21; 
ethical  relations  to  one  another, 
32;  examination  tests  show  aim 
of,  144;  failure  of,  due  to  ignorance 
of  right  aim,  141;  knowledge  re- 
quired of,  11;  knowledge  of  edu- 
cational principles  by,  15;  mate- 
rial used  by,  1 1 ;  must  know  law  of 
teaching,  176;  must  apply  law  of 
teaching,  177;  obligations  of  board 
of  education  to,  23;  often  mistaken 
results  of  teaching,  145;  poverty 
of  concepts  of,  142;  preparation  of, 
178;  purpose  of,  11;  relation  of,  to 
board  of  education,  30;  relation 
of,  to  parents,  28;  relation  of,  to 
pupils,  35;  relation  of,  to  superin- 
tendent, 30;  responsibility  of,  28, 
81;  thoughtless  cruelty  of,  illus- 
trated, 38-39;  varied  relations  of, 
27;  violations  of  ethical  relations 
of,  illustrated,  33-34;  when  mem- 
bers of  teaching  profession,  17. 

Teaching,  the,  process,  chapter  ix; 
adherence  to  laws  in,  12;  aim  of,  15; 
doubtful  classification  of,  2;  ethi- 
cal element  in,  15;  explained,  157; 
first  law  of,  158;  material  for,  11; 
misdirected  effort  in,  160;  point 
where  it  begins,  159;  principles  in, 
11;  purpose  of,  11;  relation  of  pu- 
pil's knowledge  to,  162;  require- 
ments of  a  profession  met  in,  17; 


special  preparation  for,  13;  should 
correct  WTong  concepts,  163;  voca- 
tion of,  2,  17. 

Thinking,  correct  concepts  neces- 
sary for,  chapter  viii;  cultivation 
of  habit  of,  important,  140,  152- 
54;  in  the  learning  process,  133; 
necessary  for  subjective  growth, 
140;  power  to  think  gained  through 
exercise,  134;  pupil's  failure  in,  due 
to  teaching,  147;  related  concepts 
necessary  for,  143. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  44. 

Truth,  desire  for,  makes  teaching 
possible,  312;  desire  for,  univer- 
sal, 311 ;  divine  discontent  prompts 
search  for,  304;  explorers  and  sci- 
entists seekers  for,  31 1 ;  growth  re- 
sult of  himger  for,  316;  spiritual 
growth  through  search  for,  305. 

Unity,  principles  of,  fundamental, 
310;  principles  of,  in  all  life,  308; 
national,  through  common  knowl- 
edge, 104;  of  universe  with  God, 
310. 

Vocation,  basis  for  instruction  in, 
wanting,  232;  broad  significance 
of  term,  230;  choice  of,  important, 
250;  classification  based  upon 
kind  of  material  used,  254;  classi- 
fied according  to  preparation  re- 
quired, 234;  creative  and  non-cre- 
ative, 253;  desirable  characteris- 
tics of,  257;  education  for,  221; 
in  preparation  for  life,  224;  guid- 
ance in,  an  aid  to  efficiency  in,  114; 
half-time  work  in  preparing  for, 
238;  importance  of  preparing  for, 
254-55;  instruction  for  a  school 
problem,  256;  methods  of  choos- 
ing, 258;  need  of  education  for, 
recognized,  226;  prevocational  in- 
struction   for,    240;    relation    of 


INDEX 


325 


school  to  instruction  for,  112; 
ri^ht  of  State  to  require  instruc- 
tion for,  113;  stratification  of, 
with  academic  attainment,  235- 
37;  table  of  classification  of,  235; 
training  for,  a  remedy  for  poverty 
and  crime,  222-24;  training  for 
a,  85-87,  224. 

Vocational  bureau,  271. 

Vocational  education,  chapter  xii; 
basis  for,  lacking,  232;  illustrative 
lessons  for  prevocational  instruc- 
tion, 240-43;  need  of,  recognized, 
226;  readjustment  of  course  of 
study  for,  245;  a  school  problem, 
229. 

Vocational  guidance,  chapter  xiii; 
agriculture,  outline  of  study  in, 
263;  employer's  report  as  aid  in. 


274;  illustrative  studies  in,  261-69; 
manufacturing,  a  study  in,  266; 
medicine,  a  study  in,  261 ;  methods 
in,  in  various  cities,  255;  parents' 
reports  for  aid  in,  273;  pupil's  re- 
port as  aid  in,  272;  purpose  of,  250- 
52;  suggestions  for  instruction  in, 
258,  260;  teacher's  report  as  aid  in, 
274;  trade  and  commerce,  outline 
of  study  in,  268. 

Waste,  from  use  of  wrong  subject- 
matter,  218. 

Washington,  103. 

Will,  in  the  learning  process,  182. 

Wordsworth,  65. 

Workers,  paupers  and  criminals  from 
unskilled,  222;  skilled  and  un- 
skiUed,  221. 


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